Comment on acp-2021-884

The thermospheric density response during geomagnetic storms has been extensively explored, but with limited studies on the density response in the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) region. In this study, the density response in the MLT region at mid-to-high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere during the intense geomagnetic storm in May 2024 is investigated using density data from the Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument aboard the Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED) satellite. The results indicate that during the geomagnetic storm, the density response exhibits both significant decreases and increases; specifically, approximately 25.2% of the observation points show a notable reduction within a single day, with the maximum decrease exceeding −59.9% at 105 km. In contrast, around 16.5% of the observation points experience a significant increase over the same period, with the maximum increase surpassing 82.4% at 105 km. The distribution of density changes varies with altitudes. The magnitude of density increases diminishes with decreasing altitude, whereas the density decreases exhibit altitude-dependent intensity variations. Density decreases are primarily concentrated in high-latitude regions, especially in the polar cap, while density increases are mainly observed between 50°N and 70°N. The intensity of density response is generally stronger in the dusk sector than in the dawn sector. These results suggest that atmospheric expansion and uplift driven by temperature variations are the primary factors underlying the observed density change.

Abstract. The mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT) wind structure over Wuhan (30° N, 114° E) in 2000/2001 winter and over Langfang (39.4° N, 116.6° E) in 2009/2010 winter are examined to reveal the effects of stratospheric sudden warming (SSW) in mid-low-latitude MLT region. The result shows that the MLT daily zonal wind over these two sites reversed from eastward wind to westward wind for several days during the SSW events. The reversals were almost coincident with the polar stratospheric temperature reaching its maximum at 10 hPa, 90° N and were about ten days prior to the reversal of high latitude stratospheric zonal wind at 10 hPa, 60° N. The temporal variations of tides, gravity waves and 2-day planetary waves in the mid-latitude MLT showed different behavior during the two SSW events. During the 2001 SSW event, MLT diurnal tide reached its maximum when the MLT zonal wind decreased rapidly and SSW event began in polar stratosphere; the activity of 2-day waves decreased after the onset of the 2001 SSW, while the gravity wave increased when the 2001 SSW developed into a major warming. However, in the 2009/2010 winter, the semidiurnal tide and 2-day wave in MLT over Langfang reached a peak about two days earlier than zonal wind reversal at 10 hPa, 60° N; no significant features were found in diurnal tides, terdiurnal tides and gravity waves related to the 2010 SSW event.

The Oxygen Spectrometer for Atmospheric Science on a Balloon (OSAS-B) is a heterodyne receiver for the thermally excited ground state transition of neutral atomic oxygen at 4.75 THz [1]. It has been shown that this transition is favorable for the determination of atomic oxygen in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT) region of Earth [2]. Due to water absorption, it cannot be observed from ground. Atomic oxygen is the dominant species in the MLT, and thus plays an important role for the chemistry and energy balance in the MLT region as well as for the deceleration of low-earth orbit satellites. OSAS-B uses a combined helium/nitrogen cryostat for the detector of the instrument, a superconducting hot-electron bolometer mixer, as well as for cooling the quantum-cascade laser, which serves as the local oscillator for heterodyne detection. A turning mirror allows for measurements at different vertical inclinations and for radiometric calibration against two blackbody sources. The first flight took place as a one-day flight in September 2022 from Esrange, Sweden in the framework of the EU-funded Hemera 2020 program. During the course of the flight, several hundred spectra for different elevation angles and azimuth directions were recorded. Preliminary results show a reasonable agreement with predictions from the current MSIS model (NRL MSIS 2.0/2.1). Besides, we are able to observe the spectral signatures of shear winds in the MLT as they are predicted by the horizontal-wind model (HWM 2014).[1] Wienold, M. et al. 48th IRMMW-THz, Montreal, Canada (2023), doi: 10.1109/IRMMW-THz57677.2023.10299165[2] Richter, H. et al. Commun Earth Environ 2,19 (2021), doi: 10.1038/s43247-020-00084-5

The Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) act as a critical region for the propagation and dissipation of atmospheric waves, such as gravity waves, tides, and planetary waves, playing a significant role in the global atmospheric circulation system. These waves, particularly gravity waves, dissipate and break in the MLT, converting their energy into turbulence and generating localized turbulent structures. The turbulence produced in turn can modulate wave propagation, with part of the dissipated energy potentially re-exciting new waves. Atmospheric turbulence in the MLT significantly influences the transport of energy, momentum, and matter, making it a key mechanism for understanding the coupling across the entire atmospheric system. The studies of MLT atmospheric turbulence can also promote the fine modeling of the middle and upper atmosphere.By integrating ground-based MF radar observations over (39.4°N, 116.7° E) with TIMED/SABER satellite data, we investigated the variations of atmospheric turbulence energy dissipation rate (ε) and the turbopause, as well as their relationship with atmospheric wave dynamics in the MLT region. Results show that the atmospheric ε is modulated by different periods at different altitudes. The ε is subject to 12 h and 24 h periodic variations. The 12 h periodic variation is more obvious at higher altitudes than the 24 h periodic variation at lower altitudes with the dividing layer at about 90 km. Advanced analysis of turbopause are based on the total wave variations based on SABER/TIMED. We first propose a new method for identifying the wave-turbopause by employing the conservation of energy principle, and introducing an energy index to delineate the turbopause layer’s boundaries. This method defines a set of parameters including the lower boundary height, upper boundary height, turbopause height, and turbopause layer thickness. Applying this method to long-term SABER data over Beijing, we find that the turbopause layer exhibits distinct seasonal and interannual variations. The average heigh of lower boundary is 69 km, and the average heigh of upper boundary is 94 km. Global characteristics of the turbopause layer are provided, which are quite valuable to enhancing our further atmospheric modeling and empirical studies.

[1] It has long been suggested that the existence of ionospheric oscillations at multiday periodicities can be explained in part, by the penetration of propagating planetary waves into the E region ionospheric dynamo. In this study, global-scale observations of mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT) temperatures from TIMED/SABER and total electron content (TEC) results from GPS derived global ionosphere maps are examined for signs of potential upward planetary wave coupling, around the time of an intense quasi 2 day wave (QTDW) event in the MLT region during 1 December 2005 to 28 February 2006. The periodicity and zonal wave number of westward 3 (W3) and westward 2 (W2) QTDWs are resolved continuously in equatorial ionization anomaly (EIA) latitude TEC values at the same times as corresponding QTDW events in SABER temperatures. Additionally, signatures of an E1 ultrafast Kelvin (UFK) or inertia-gravity wave with period around 60 h (2.5 d) are also resolved. While the TECs also show signs of geomagnetic activity, the coherence and consistency of the aforementioned disturbances between the MLT and the ionosphere suggest that they cannot be attributed to geomagnetic forcing. We find that such propagating planetary waves can produce transient variability of the EIAs, though the effectiveness and hemispheric symmetry of such coupling also depends on factors other than the maximum planetary wave amplitude in the MLT.

By using a general circulation model, behaviors of the eastward propagating diurnal tide with zonal wavenumber 3 (DE3) and their relation with the convective activity in the tropical troposphere are examined. The amplitude of the DE3 is significant in the equatorial mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT). Day‐to‐day variations of the DE3 amplitude are evident in the MLT region, and are closely related with temporal variations of the rainfall rate in the tropics. Estimates of the EP flux divergence due to the DE3 indicate that this convective modulated DE3 activity induces day‐to‐day variations of the wave‐induced driving of the zonal mean zonal wind in the MLT region. Our results show that temporal variations of the zonal mean zonal wind in the equatorial MLT region are influenced by the moist convective activity in the tropics.

The mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT), at heights of 80–100 km, is critical in the coupling of the middle and upper atmosphere and controls the momentum and energy transfer between these two regions. However, despite its importance, many General Circulation Models (GCMs) do not extend upwards into the MLT and those that do remain poorly constrained. In this study, we use a long-term meteor radar wind dataset from Rothera (67° S, 68° W) on the Antarctic Peninsula to test the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model with thermosphere-ionosphere eXtension (WACCM-X). This radar has an interferometer to determine meteor heights and has been running since 2005. This unique combination yields a dataset ideally suited to investigate interannual variability. We find that although some characteristic features in monthly median winds are represented well in WACCM-X, the model exhibits significant biases. In particular, the observations reveal a ∼10 ms-1 eastward wind at heights of 85–100 km in Antarctic winter, whereas the model predicts winds of the same magnitude but of opposite direction. We propose that this bias exists because WACCM-X is missing eastward momentum forcing in the MLT from the breaking of secondary gravity waves. Both the model and observations reveal significant interannual variability in monthly median winds. We investigate the role of particular key external phenomena in driving the winds in this region. These phenomena are; i) variations in Solar activity, ii) the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), iii) the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO) and iv) the Southern Annular Mode (SAM). We use a linear regression method to investigate how the observed and modelled winds, and modelled gravity wave tendencies in the Antarctic MLT vary in relation to the indices that quantify these phenomena. We find that there are some times of year and some height ranges at which there are significant correlations between the indices and the observed/modelled winds. In particular, in summer, there is a strong positive correlation in the modelled and observed zonal winds with the 11-year Solar cycle of magnitude up to 9 ms-1 per 70 Solar flux units. However, there appears to be little significant influence of the ENSO on the winds observed by the radar although WACCM-X zonal winds display a negative correlation throughout January–February and a positive correlation during March–May. Results from the QBO indices are varied and we find differing correlations in the model and observations. Finally, we find a positive correlation between observed summertime zonal winds and the SAM which has a magnitude of 9 ms-1 per 2.5 hPa change in the SAM index. However, in WACCM-X zonal winds the summertime response is negative and around 10 ms-1 per 2.5 hPa. The significance of this work lies in our quantifying the biases in a leading GCM and demonstrating there is significant interannual variability in both modelled and observed winds, some of which are consistent with the proposal of external forcing.

This work analyzed the intraseasonal variability of non-migrating tides DE3 and gravity wave momentum fluxes (GWMF) in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT) region and discussed the possible connection with the tropospheric MJO. Based on the joint observations of the TIMED-TIDI satellite and the 120°E meridian meteor radar chain, we revealed a significant broad-band intra-seasonal signal in the DE3 amplitude around the equator with a clear seasonal dependence. The intraseasonal variability of DE3 in zonal winds (DE3-U) has a strong amplitude in boreal winter, up to 1-2 times the seasonal average, while the variability is usually within 20% during other seasons. The response of MLT DE3 tides to the MJO in different seasons was further discussed together with the MJO activity index. The results suggested that the DE3-U in boreal winter generally has a larger amplitude during MJO phases 4–6 (~10%–40%), while the amplitude is smaller for other MJO phases (~−10%–−40%). As for the GWMF estimation, the 12-year continuous observation of the Mohe meteor radar (53.5°N, 122.3°E) was analyzed. The results showed that intraseasonal GWMF variability is also prominent during boreal winter. Composite analysis for DJF season according to MJO phases revealed that the zonal GMWFs notably increased in MJO P4 by ~2–4 m2/s2, and a Monte Carlo test was designed to examine the statistical significance. The response in zonal winds differs from the GMWF response by two MJO phases (i.e., 1/2π). Additionally, time-lagged composites revealed the strengthened westward GWMF occurred ~25–35 days after MJO P4, coincident with the MJO impact on the polar vortex as previous works revealed. Overall, this work emphasized that the tropical sources (MJO) impress the intraseasonal signal from the troposphere to the MLT region, either tropics or extratropics.

A two‐dimensional nonlinear numerical model was used to simulate large winds (≥ 100 m s−1) and wind shears (≥ 40 m s−1 km−1) in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT) that are caused by the interaction between gravity waves (GWs) and migrating tidal background. By varying the wavelengths of GWs and the phases of diurnal and semidiurnal tides, 64 numerical experiments were performed. Our numerical experiments indicate that both migrating diurnal and semidiurnal tides strongly modulate the occurrence of GW breaking, and the resulted large winds and wind shears. The simulated large winds and wind shears are in good agreement with those from the rocket‐sounding chemical release measurements. Moreover, the occurrence of large wind shears highly depends on the phases of migrating tides in local time, which is in agreement with the reported lidar observations. The local time dependence of large wind shears is mainly attributed to the filtering and/or hindering effects of diurnal and semidiurnal tidal winds on GWs. Our simulation reveals that the nonlinear interactions between GWs breaking and the migrating diurnal and semidiurnal tides may play an important role in driving the large winds and wind shears in the MLT region and their local time dependence.

The Michelson Interferometer for Global High-resolution Thermospheric Imaging (MIGHTI) was launched aboard NASA’s Ionospheric Connection (ICON) Explorer satellite in October 2019 to measure winds and temperatures on the limb in the upper mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT). Temperatures are observed using the molecular oxygen atmospheric band near 763 nm from 90–127 km altitude in the daytime and 90–108 km in the nighttime. Here we describe the measurement approach and methodology of the temperature retrieval, including unique on-orbit operations that allow for a better understanding of the instrument response. The MIGHTI measurement approach for temperatures is distinguished by concurrent observations from two different sensors, allowing for two self-consistent temperature products. We compare the MIGHTI temperatures against existing MLT space-borne and ground-based observations. The MIGHTI temperatures are within 7 K of these observations on average from 90–95 km throughout the day and night. In the daytime on average from 99–105 km, MIGHTI temperatures are higher than coincident observations by the Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument on NASA’s TIMED satellite by 18 K. Because the difference between the MIGHTI and SABER observations is predominantly a constant bias at a given altitude, conclusions of scientific analyses that are based on temperature variations are largely unaffected.

The mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT) is a dynamic layer of the earth’s atmosphere. This region marks the interface at which neutral atmosphere dynamics begin to influence the ionosphere and space weather. However, our understanding of this region and our ability to accurately simulate it in global circulation models (GCMs) is limited by a lack of observations, especially in remote locations. To this end, a meteor radar was deployed on the remote mountainous island of South Georgia (54° S, 36° W) in the Southern Ocean from 2016 to 2020. The goal of this study is to use these new measurements to characterise the fundamental dynamics of the MLT above South Georgia including large-scale winds, solar tides, planetary waves (PWs) and mesoscale gravity waves (GWs). We first present an improved method for time-height localisation of radar wind measurements and characterise the large-scale MLT winds. We then explore the amplitudes and phases of the diurnal (24 h), semidiurnal (12 h) and terdiurnal (8 h) solar tides at this latitude. We also explore PW activity and find very large amplitudes up to 30 ms−1 for the quasi-2 day wave in summer and show that the dominant modes of the quasi-5, 10 and 16 day waves are westward W1 and W2. We investigate wind variance due to GWs in the MLT and use a new method to show an east-west tendency of GW variance of up to 20 % during summer and a weaker north-south tendency of 0–5 % during winter. This is contrary to the expected tendency of GW directions in the winter stratosphere below, which is a strong suggestion of secondary GW (2GW) observations in the MLT. Lastly, comparison of radar winds to a climatological Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model (WACCM) simulation reveals a simulated summertime mesopause and zonal wind shear that occur at altitudes around 10 km lower than observed, and southward winds during winter above 90 km altitude in the model that are not seen in observations. Further, wintertime zonal winds above 85 km altitude are eastward in radar observations but in WACCM they are found to weaken and reverse to westward. Recent studies have linked this discrepancy to the impact of 2GWs on the residual circulation which are not included in WACCM. These measurements therefore provide vital constraints that can guide the development of GCMs as they extend upwards into this important region of the atmosphere.

Trends in the mesopause region temperature and our present understanding—an update

We present analysis of the chemical and dynamical variability in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT) during the 2018-2019 sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) as simulated by the high resolution (~25 km horizontal and 0.1 scale height vertical resolution) version of the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model with thermosphere-ionosphere eXtension (WACCM-X). The WACCM-X simulations make use of new capabilities, including the spectral element dynamical core and the ability to constrain the lower atmosphere meteorology in WACCM-X at high-resolutions. Compared to standard resolution (~200 km horizontal and 0.25 scale height vertical resolution) WACCM-X simulations, the high-resolution simulations are in better agreement with Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics Dynamics-Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (TIMED-SABER) and Atmosphere Chemistry Experiment-Fourier Transform Spectrometer (ACE-FTS) observations. In particular, the high-resolution simulations better reproduce the Northern Hemisphere middle-high latitude winds in the MLT. The downward transport of nitric oxide (NO) following the SSW is also better reproduced in the high-resolution simulations. The results demonstrate the importance of capturing mesoscale processes for accurately simulating the chemistry and dynamics of the MLT.      

The intraseasonal oscillations (30–100 days, ISO) in the MLT (mesosphere and lower thermosphere) horizontal wind are investigated based on observations from the Mengcheng meteor radar. There is a clear seasonal variation in ISO in the horizontal wind at 80 km, which is strongest during the winter and weakest during the summer. At 100 km, ISO occurs throughout most of the year except winter, and there are significant differences in periods and amplitudes from year to year. From 2015 to 2016, ISOs with periods of 40–60 days were present in the 100 km horizontal wind, whereas none were simultaneously observed in the 80 km horizontal wind. Cross wavelets were used to study the relationship between ISO in the MLT region and ISO in the lower atmosphere. Some of the ISO activity is linked to tropospheric tropical convective activity, but the ISO connections with that in tropospheric convection are not consistent in the upper mesosphere and in the lower thermosphere.

Empirical Modeling of Carbon Dioxide volume mixing ratio for infrared radiance simulation in the near space