Comment on cp-2022-2

During the Mid-Pleistocene Transition (MPT), ca. 1250–800 kya, the Earth’s glacial cycles changed from 41 ky to 100 ky periodicity. The emergence of this longer ice-age periodicity was accompanied by higher global ice volume in glacial periods and lower global ice volume in interglacial periods. Since there is no known change in external orbital forcing across the MPT, it is generally agreed that the cause of this transition is internal to the earth system. Resolving the climate–carbon cycle–cryosphere dynamics processes responsible for the MPT remains a major challenge in ice core and climate science. To address this challenge, the international ice core community has prioritized recovery of an ice core record spanning the MPT interval. The results from such ‘oldest ice’ projects are still several years away. Our objective here it to make an advanced prediction of atmospheric CO2 out to 1.5 my. Our prediction utilizes existing records of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) from Antarctic ice cores spanning the past 800 ky along with the existing benthic water stable isotope (ẟ18O) record from marine sediment cores. Our predictions assume that the relationship between CO2 and benthic ẟ18O over the past 800 thousand years can be extended over the last one and a half million years. The implied null hypothesis is that there has been no fundamental change in the global climate–carbon cycle–cryosphere feedback systems across the MPT. We find that our predicted CO2 record is significantly lower during glacial intervals than the existing blue-ice and boron isotope-based estimates of CO2 that pre-date the continuous 800 ky CO2 record. Our predicted glacial CO2 concentrations are ~9 ppm below glacial CO2 concentrations observed in blue ice data at ca. 1 mya and ~19 ppm below glacial CO2 concentrations reconstructed from boron isotopic data over ca ~1.1–1.25 mya. These results support rejection of our null hypothesis and provide quantitative evidence of a fundamental shift in the global climate–carbon cycle–cryosphere feedback systems across the MPT. However, the definitive test of the various theories explaining the MPT will be comparison of our predicted records with the forthcoming oldest ice core records.

Ice core is an important information carrier to reconstruct paleoclimate. Because of its high resolution,high fidelity,huge amount of information and long time scale,it has become a research hot spot. Since the first ice core was found in Qilian Mountain in 1986,in China many other ice cores have been successively drilled in Tibet Plateau,such as Guliya,Malan,Dasuopu,Puruogangri,Dongrongbu and so on. In this paper,we provided a review and summary of study results with the ice cores mentioned above,and discussed the approaches and indicators of ice cores as information carriers reflecting paleoclimate,shown as follows.(1) The significant corresponding relationship between Oxygen isotope and temperature: Oxygen isotope shows a positive correlation with temperature though it is affected by "amount effect of precipitation water" in the southern part of the Tibet Plateau.(2) The relationship between accumulation of ice core and precipitation: accumulation of ice core can be used as a direct record of glacial precipitation,and,at the same time,the amount of accumulation indicates climate change in the past.(3) The relationship between atmospheric aerosols and climate environment:the climate environment reveals the changing history of atmospheric aerosols and helps understand the geomorphological evolution and intensity changes of atmospheric circulation of the surrounding areas on the Tibet Plateau in the past.(4) The relationship between trace elements and paleoclimate: trace elements can be used to explore the connection between ice core records and solar active rhythm. It also indicates the influence of industrial pollution on glacier environment in the high altitude.(5) The relationship between ice core inclusions and paleoenvironment: ice core inclusions are the complete preservation of ancient atmosphere,and can be used for comparing and reconstructing the ancient atmospheric composition from different historical stages and reflecting the information of environmental changes of this region in the long time.(6) The relationship between microorganisms in the ice core and the ancient environment: microorganisms in the ice core record the response to the environmental change in the past through its own unique biological characteristics. Microorganisms of different depths reflect the environmental conditions in different periods. Then,we presented the response of the ice core in Tibet Plateau to paleoclimates,including some extreme climate events in the past,the Medieval Warm Period,the Little Ice Age,glacial-interglacial cycles,ENSO events,solar activity patterns and global warming since the Industrial Revolution,but the Tibet Plateau's response mechanism is not the same as that of polar regions. It has its own characteristics. We also explained the similarities and differences of the ice core in the reconstruction of paleoclimate under the influence of different monsoon systems because of the mutual influences of Indian monsoon,East Asia monsoon and the west wind on the Tibet Plateau. Finally,based on the current research status,we presented in-depth discussions on the prospects of the research such as: strengthening innovation in interdisciplinary studies,use of new technologies,development of alternative indicators,influence of the ice core record on factor assessment,creation of quantitative models,and other future directions.

Ice core records from tropical and subtropical ice caps provide unique information about the chemical and physical character of the atmosphere. Seasonal variations in the chemical composition of the snowfall and amount of precipitation accumulating on these ice caps produce annual laminations that allow these stratigraphic sequences to be dated. The thickness of an annual lamination reflects the net accumulation, while the physical and chemical constituents (e.g., dust, δ 18 O, various ions) record atmospheric conditions during deposition. The information presented in this chapter builds upon an earlier investigation of the preservation of an El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) history in the 1,500-year record from ice cores recovered from the Quelccaya ice cap, Peru (Thompson et al. 1992). Recent ice cores from Nevado Huascaran, Peru (90°7′S, 77°37′W, 6,048 m), which provided the first tropical ice core history extending back to the Late Glacial Stage (Thompson et al. 1995), also contain an annually resolvable record for the past 270 years. This study is based upon the most recent 68-year period from the Huascaran ice cores, from which a methodology for isolation of ENSO events is developed. The Quelccaya ENSO study (Thompson et al. 1992) revealed that in the Peruvian Andes the ice core constituent most highly correlated with sea surface temperatures (SSTs) is δ 18 O(r = 0.36, significant at the 95% level).

<p>This thesis investigates synoptic variability in the Ross Sea region, Antarctica and develops geochemical proxies of this variability from an ice core record in Southern Victoria Land. Particular focus is given to the influence of decadal climate oscillations on synoptic conditions and potential records of these oscillations in ice core proxy records as long-­‐term records of these oscillations are important for understanding future climate change. I present an investigation of the joint influence of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) on variability in the Amundsen Sea Low (ASL), a dominant climatological feature that strongly influences the weather in the Ross Sea region. It is shown that the positive phase of each oscillation is associated with significant strengthening of the ASL, while negative phases are associated with a weakening. Through regression analysis I show that a simple linear combination of indices representing these oscillations can explain more than 40% of the geopotential height variance in the AS region at a seasonal scale and over 70% of the variance at an annual scale. These results are consistent with the known mechanisms of ENSO and SAM interaction in the region and show that while SAM is dominant hemispherically, ENSO is only influential in the Pacific Sector. Finally it is demonstrated that a simple model of linear reinforcement and interference between the oscillations describes their influence on the variability in the ASL better than models incorporating more complex interactions. Atmospheric back-­‐trajectory modeling and cluster analysis are used to investigate synoptic variability at the Gawn Ice Piedmont (GIP) ice core site in the Ross Sea Region, Antarctica. I identify two dominant air-­‐mass trajectory clusters: oceanic – cyclonic and continental trajectories. My analysis shows that oceanic – cyclonic trajectories peak during April (southern hemisphere winter), while continental trajectories reach their maximum during December (summer). A causal association is demonstrated between ENSO and the frequency of oceanic – cyclonic trajectories originating from the Ross Sea region. In contrast, it is shown that the Southern Annular Mode has little influence on the frequency of cyclonic clusters. I then develop proxy records for the synoptic variability using a shallow firn core from the GIP site containing 8 years of geochemical record. Continental trajectories correlate with concentrations of nitrate (NO3), which is sourced from stratospheric air-­‐masses descending over the Antarctic interior. Oceanic – cyclonic trajectory clusters strongly correlate with deuterium excess at seasonal and inter-­‐annual scales, a proxy sensitive to changes in relative humidity and sea surface temperature (SST) in the in the Ross and Amundsen Seas. Decadal variability in the frequency of oceanic – cyclonic trajectories is discussed with respect to ENSO, SAM, and changes in SST and sea ice extent.</p>

Although it has been possible to construct a new index of global volcanism using ice core acidity and sulphate records for the period from 1850 to the present, for the 2000 year period, there are fewer ice cores available, and dating problems become more serious, especially for Antarctic cores. We have compared all the ice cores available for the past 2000 years with the Dust Veil Index (DVI) and the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) for this period. An Ice core-Volcanic Index constructed for the period 453 A.D. to the present shows little agreement with the DVI or VEI. Except for a very few eruptions, the ice core record currently available is insufficient to delineate the climatic forcing by explosive volcanic eruptions before about 1200 for the Northern Hemisphere and before about 1850 for the Southern Hemisphere. Additional ice cores, however, combined with geological and biological information, will allow this to be done in the future.

<strong class="journal-contentHeaderColor">Abstract.</strong> Antarctic sea ice forms a critical part of the Southern Ocean and global climate system. The behaviour of Antarctic sea ice throughout the last glacial-interglacial (G-IG) cycle (12 000–130 000 years) allows us to investigate the interactions between sea ice and climate under a large range of mean climate states. Understanding both temporal and spatial variations in Antarctic sea ice across a G-IG cycle is crucial to a better understanding of the G-IG regulation of atmospheric CO<span class="inline-formula">₂</span>, ocean circulation, nutrient cycling and productivity. This study presents 28 published qualitative and quantitative estimates of G-IG sea ice from 24 marine sediment cores and an Antarctic ice core. Sea ice is reconstructed from the sediment core records using diatom assemblages and from the ice core record using sea-salt sodium flux. Whilst all regions of the Southern Ocean display the same overall pattern in G-IG sea-ice variations, the magnitudes and timings vary between regions. Sea-ice cover is most sensitive to changing climate in the regions of high sea-ice outflow from the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea gyres, as indicated by the greatest magnitude changes in sea ice in these areas. In contrast the Scotia Sea sea-ice cover is much more resilient to moderate climatic warming, likely due to the meltwater stratification from high iceberg flux through "iceberg alley" helping to sustain high sea-ice cover outside of full glacial intervals. The differing sensitivities of sea ice to climatic shifts between different regions of the Southern Ocean has important implications for the spatial pattern of nutrient supply and primary productivity, which subsequently impact carbon uptake and atmospheric CO<span class="inline-formula">₂</span> concentrations changes across a G-IG cycle.

Fe2+ in ice cores as a new potential proxy to detect past volcanic eruptions

Abstract. Insolation changes during the Eemian (the last interglacial period, 129 000–116 000 years before present) resulted in warmer than present conditions in the Arctic region. The NEEM ice core record suggests warming of 8 ± 4 K in northwestern Greenland based on stable water isotopes. Here we use general circulation model experiments to investigate the causes of the Eemian warming in Greenland. Simulations of the atmospheric response to combinations of Eemian insolation and preindustrial oceanic conditions and vice versa are used to disentangle the impacts of the insolation change and the related changes in sea surface temperatures and sea ice conditions. The changed oceanic conditions cause warming throughout the year, prolonging the impact of the summertime insolation increase. Consequently, the oceanic conditions cause an annual mean warming of 2 K at the NEEM site, whereas the insolation alone causes an insignificant change. Taking the precipitation changes into account, however, the insolation and oceanic changes cause more comparable increases in the precipitation-weighted temperature, implying that both contributions are important for the ice core record at the NEEM site. The simulated Eemian precipitation-weighted warming of 2.4 K at the NEEM site is low compared to the ice core reconstruction, partially due to missing feedbacks related to ice sheet changes and an extensive sea ice cover. Surface mass balance calculations with an energy balance model further indicate that the combination of temperature and precipitation anomalies leads to potential mass loss in the north and southwestern parts of the ice sheet. The oceanic conditions favor increased accumulation in the southeast, while the insolation appears to be the dominant cause of the expected ice sheet reduction. Consequently, the Eemian is not a suitable analogue for future ice sheet changes.

&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;The current and future anthropogenic-induced high-latitude warming will have global climatic implications due to polar ice mass loss, sea level rise and ocean circulation changes. However, uncertainty remains on future climate projections mainly due to an incomplete understanding of climate, cryosphere and carbon cycle feedback processes occurring at centennial to millennial- timescales. Progress can be achieved by exploring climate and environmental changes that occurred in the past. In the HOTCLIM project, we are studying past warm periods, also referred to as interglacials, which exhibit a polar warming comparable to that projected by 2100 due to specific combinations of orbital and CO&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;2&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; forcing. Especially, we are investigating the link between the carbon cycle dynamics and climate changes. To do so, we are combining (i) new analyses on the air trapped in Antarctic deep ice cores to inform on past changes in Antarctic climate and atmospheric CO2 concentrations (ii) climate and environmental data synthesis looking into the lower latitudes using terrestrial and oceanic archives (sea surface temperature, hydrological cycles, ocean circulation) (iii) an evaluation of outputs from climate models using the new comparison of the paleoclimatic datasynthesis and models output. The HOTCLIM project will improve our understanding of the natural climate variability and the processes involved during past periods associated with temperature changes comparable to projected future warming, hence helping improve climate projections&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Here, we present the first results from the HOTCLIM project which is a multi-archive synthesis focused on the warm interval occurring between 190 and 243 ka BP, also refered to as Marine Isotopic Stage 7 (MIS 7). This warm period is of special interest because it follows the fastest transition between a cold (glacial) and a hot (interglacial) period of the last 800&amp;amp;#160;000 ka, with a polar warming of 10 degrees in less than 5ka. We have compiled more than 30 oceanic cores, 9 speleothems and 3 ice cores covering the MIS 7 period. To compare them, we are now building a common chronology to these records. The use of combined continental (ice cores, speleothems) and oceanic (sediment cores) archives located on the whole surface of the Earth will allows to characterize (i) the amplitude and the temporal structure of the surface warming across the globe (ii) the contrast between oceanic and continental warming.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;

Quantifying the periodicity of Heinrich and Dansgaard–Oeschger events during Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 3

The circulation mechanisms of climate anomalies in the southern tropical Andes are of particular interest for the January–February core of the precipitation season. With this focus, we evaluate in context upper-air and surface analyses, water level measurements of Lake Titicaca, and records of net balance and δ18O from ice cores. Precipitation is more abundant with enhanced and southward expanded easterlies through a deep layer of the troposphere over the southern tropical Andes. Concomitant with this is a southward displaced circulation system over the equatorial Atlantic, entailing reduced interhemispheric gradient of sea surface temperature (SST; cold/warm anomalies in the North/South), more southerly position of the surface wind confluence and Intertropical Convergence Zone, and thus more abundant rainfall in Northeast Brazil. Such ensemble of circulation departures in boreal winter is common to the high phase of the Southern Oscillation.δ18O in the ice cores from Peru's Quelccaya Icecap, as wellas the cores from Sajama and Ilimani in Bolivia is more negative with more abundant precipitation, both in the same annual cycle and on interannual timescales. The large-scale circulation departures associated with the more negative δ18O are in the sense as for anomalously abundant precipitation activity over the southern tropical Andes. The variability of δ18O seasonally and interannually appears to be controlled mainly by the fate of the water vapor along its trajectory and over the Andes, rather than by the SST of the South Atlantic source region.

We present a unique atmospheric chemistry record from the highest ice core ever recovered (8020 m, South Col Glacier (SCG), Mt. Everest), that captures ~400 years of deposition during the latter half of the first millennium BCE. Due to recent glacier thinning, the upper ~2000 years of accumulation have been lost, however, this is the only ice core record ever recovered from the “Death Zone (&amp;gt;8000 m)” and likely the only record that can be attained. Insights from this 10m deep record and comparison with an ice core we recovered on the north side of Mt. Everet include: an estimated lapse rate of water isotopes at extreme elevations; the influence of southerly and northerly source air masses on precipitation, dusts and overall atmospheric chemistry over Mt. Everest; and possibly the earliest influences of human activity on the chemistry of the atmosphere in this region.

The LMDz variable grid GCM was used to simulate the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 21 ky Bp.) climate of Greenland and Antarctica at a spatial resolution of about 100 km.The high spatial resolution allows to investigate the spatial variability of surface climate change signals, and thus to address the question whether the sparse ice core data can be viewed as representative for the regional scale climate change. This study addresses primarily surface climate parameters because these can be checked against the, limited, ice core record. The changes are generally stronger for Greenland than for Antarctica, as the imposed changes of the forcing boundary conditions (e.g., sea surface temperatures) are more important in the vicinity of Greenland. Over Greenland, and to a limited extent also in Antarctica, the climate shows stronger changes in winter than in summer. The model suggests that the linear relationship between the surface temperature and inversion strength is modified during the LGM. The temperature dependency of the moisture holding capacity of the atmosphere alone cannot explain the strong reduction in snowfall over central Greenland; atmospheric circulation changes also play a crucial role. Changes in the high frequency variability of snowfall, atmospheric pressure and temperature are investigated and possible consequences for the interpretation of ice core records are discussed. Using an objective cyclone tracking scheme, the importance of changes of the atmospheric dynamics off the coasts of the ice sheets, especially for the high frequency variability of surface climate parameters, is illustrated. The importance of the choice of the LGM ice sheet topography is illustrated for Greenland, where two different topographies have been used, yielding results that differ quite strongly in certain nontrivial respects. This means that the paleo-topography is a significant source of uncertainty for the modelled paleoclimate. The sensitivity of the Greenland LGM climate to the prescribed sea surface conditions is examined by using two different LGM North Atlantic data sets.

A new Andean deep ice core from Nevado Illimani (6350 m), Bolivia

Trends and sources of lead (Pb) aerosol pollution in the North Pacific rim of North America from 1850 to 2001 are investigated using a high‐resolution (subannual to annual) ice core record recovered from Eclipse Icefield (3017 masl; St. Elias Mountains, Canada). Beginning in the early 1940s, increasing Pb concentration at Eclipse Icefield occurs coevally with anthropogenic Pb deposition in central Greenland, suggesting that North American Pb pollution may have been in part or wholly responsible in both regions. Isotopic ratios (208Pb/207Pb and 206Pb/207Pb) from 1970 to 2001 confirm that a portion of the Pb deposited at Eclipse Icefield is anthropogenic, and that it represents a variable mixture of East Asian (Chinese and Japanese) emissions transported eastward across the Pacific Ocean and a North American component resulting from transient meridional atmospheric flow. Based on comparison with source material Pb isotope ratios, Chinese and North American coal combustion have likely been the primary sources of Eclipse Icefield Pb over the 1970–2001 time period. The Eclipse Icefield Pb isotope composition also implies that the North Pacific mid‐troposphere is not directly impacted by transpolar atmospheric flow from Europe. Annually averaged Pb concentrations in the Eclipse Icefield ice core record show no long‐term trend during 1970–2001; however, increasing208Pb/207Pb and decreasing 206Pb/207Pb ratios reflect the progressive East Asian industrialization and increase in Asian pollutant outflow. The post‐1970 decrease in North American Pb emissions is likely necessary to explain the Eclipse Icefield Pb concentration time series. When compared with low (lichen) and high (Mt. Logan ice core) elevation Pb data, the Eclipse ice core record suggests a gradual increase in pollutant deposition and stronger trans‐Pacific Asian contribution with rising elevation in the mountains of the North Pacific rim.