Comparative Analysis of Emotional State Classification Using Different Machine Learning Techniques

Emotion recognition is one of the trending research fields. It is involved in several applications. Its most interesting applications include robotic vision and interactive robotic communication. Human emotions can be detected using both speech and visual modalities. Facial expressions can be considered as ideal means for detecting the persons' emotions. This paper presents a real-time approach for implementing emotion detection and deploying it in the robotic vision applications. The proposed approach consists of four phases: preprocessing, key point generation, key point selection and angular encoding, and classification. The main idea is to generate key points using MediaPipe face mesh algorithm, which is based on real-time deep learning. In addition, the generated key points are encoded using a sequence of carefully designed mesh generator and angular encoding modules. Furthermore, feature decomposition is performed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). This phase is deployed to enhance the accuracy of emotion detection. Finally, the decomposed features are enrolled into a Machine Learning (ML) technique that depends on a Support Vector Machine (SVM), k-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), Naïve Bayes (NB), Logistic Regression (LR), or Random Forest (RF) classifier. Moreover, we deploy a Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) as an efficient deep neural network technique. The presented techniques are evaluated on different datasets with different evaluation metrics. The simulation results reveal that they achieve a superior performance with a human emotion detection accuracy of 97%, which ensures superiority among the efforts in this field.

Applying data mining techniques to classify patients with suspected hepatitis C virus infection

In the evolving field of cybersecurity, detecting malicious activity in high-dimensional network data remains a persistent challenge for traditional machine learning (ML) techniques. This study investigates the use of convolutional variational autoencoders (VAEs) to generate latent features that enhance the performance of various ML classifiers on the 2015 NSL-KDD dataset. Classifiers, including Gaussian Naïve Bayes (GNB), support vector machines (SVMs) with Radial Basis Function (RBF) kernel, decision trees, and dense neural networks, were evaluated using metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score, and the Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC). To assess the effectiveness of VAEs, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used as a baseline dimensionality reduction method, and performance comparisons were made. The best-performing model was an SVM with an RBF kernel, a PCA (threshold = 0.92), and a VAE with six latent features, achieving an accuracy of 82.8%, an F1 score of 0.830, and an MCC of 0.682. The results indicate that VAEs can significantly enhance classifier performance, particularly in GNB and SVM models, suggesting their value in developing more effective intrusion detection systems. Received: 23 August 2024 | Revised: 3 June 2025 | Accepted: 15 July 2025 Conflicts of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to this work. Data Availability Statement The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in NSL-KDD Dataset at https://github.com/t-taylor/cvaes-research/tree/main/results. Author Contribution Statement Thomas Taylor: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Amna Eleyan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration. Mohammed Al-Khalidi: Validation, Resources, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Supervision.

Software Defined Network (SDN) allows the separation of a control layer and data forwarding at two different layers. However, centralized control systems in SDN is vulnerable to attacks namely Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS). Therefore, it is necessary for developing a solution based on reactive applications that can identify, detect, as well as mitigate the attacks comprehensively. In this paper, an application has been built based on machine learning methods including, Support Vector Machine (SVM) using Linear and Radial Basis Function kernel, K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), Decision Tree (DTC), Random Forest (RFC), Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP), and Gaussian Naïve Bayes (GNB). The paper also proposed a new scheme of DDOS dataset in SDN by gathering considerably static data form using the port statistic. SVM became the most efficient method for identifying DDoS attack successfully proved by the accuracy, precision, and recall approximately 100 % which could be considered as the primary algorithm for detecting DDoS. In term of the promptness, KNN had the slowest rate for the whole process, while the fastest was depicted by GNB

Metabolomic profiling and machine learning application for discriminating fatal hypothermia in a rat model.

<sec> <title>Purpose:</title> This study aimed to identify severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases combining blood test results and imaging parameters based on a machine learning classifier at the initial admission. </sec> <sec> <title>Materials and methods:</title> Ninety-five non-severe and 22 severe laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases treated between January 23, 2020 and March 25, 2020 were examined in this retrospective trial. Blood test results and chest computed tomography (CT) images were obtained at the initial admission. The lesions on CT images were segmented using an artificial intelligent (AI) tool. Then, quantitative CT (QCT) parameters, including the volume, percentage, ground glass opacity (GGO) percentage and heterogeneity of the lesions were calculated. Correlations of blood test results and QCT parameters were analyzed by the Pearson test first. Then, discriminative features for detecting severe cases were selected by both the independent samples t test and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression. Next, support vector machine (SVM), Gaussian naïve Bayes (GNB), Knearest neighbor (KNN), decision tree (DT), random forest (RF) and multi-layer perceptron-neural net (MLP-NN) algorithms were used as classifiers, and their accuracies were assessed by 10-fold-cross-validation. </sec> <sec> <title>Results:</title> Blood test indexes and CT parameters were moderately to medially correlated. Of all selected features, lesion percentage contributed mostly to the classification of the two groups, followed by lesion volume, patient age, lymphocyte count, neutrophil count, GGO percentage and tumor heterogeneity. RF-assisted identification had the highest accuracy of 91.38%, followed by GNB (87.83%), KNN (87.93%), SVM (86.21%), MLP-NN (85.34%) and DT (84.48%). </sec> <sec> <title>Conclusions:</title> The RF-assisted model combining blood test and QCT parameters is helpful in the identification of severe COVID-19 cases. </sec>

The major consequence of breast cancer is death. It has been proven in many studies that machine learning techniques are more efficient in diagnosing breast cancer. These algorithms have also been used to estimate a person's likelihood of surviving breast cancer. In this study, we employed machine learning algorithms to predict breast cancer. A total of 569 breast cancer datasets were obtained from kaggle sites. Some of the machine learning algorithms that we use are K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), besides Random Forest (RF), there is also Gradient Boosting (GB), then Gaussian Naive Bayes (GNB), Vector Support Machine (SVM), and then Logistic Regression (LR). Before algorithms were used to train and test breast cancer datasets, StandardScaler was leveraged to transform training datasets and test datasets for improved algorithm performance. As a result of this utilization, the performance measurement carried out succeeded in producing high accuracy. The highest results were obtained from the Logistic Regression algorithm with an accuracy value of 99%. The value of precison is 99% benign, and 100% malignant. The recall results are 100% benign, and 98% malignant. The F1-Score results show 99% benign, and 99% malignant. It is hoped that this research can help the medical party to determine the next step in dealing with breast cancer.

Online games are hazardous to one's health and well-being. Addiction to video games has now become a concern to Bangladeshi youth. Our lives are negatively impacted by online gaming. We must keep an eye on our country's youth to ensure that they do not become addicted to any kind of internet gaming. We must refrain from playing games in order to avoid being hooked on them. Machine learning will be used to forecast the likelihood of becoming addicted to video games. We begin by reviewing relevant studies, journals, and internet publications, and then we speak with online gaming addictions. We discovered certain common elements that are linked to gaming addiction and Lemmen’s gaming addiction scale to measure the whether a person is addicted or not. Then, based on those criteria, such as age, gender, mental pressure, and so on, we collect data. We gather information from both addicts and nonaddicts. There are two possible outcomes: We processed all of the data once it was collected and developed a processed dataset. On our processed dataset, we used machine learning techniques. In different predictions and detection systems, machine learning, artificial intelligence and deep learning are applied. KNN (K-Nearest Neighbor), LR (Logistic Regression), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Gaussian Naive Bayes (GNB), Random Forest (RF), Adaptive Boosting (ADA Boosting), Decision Tree (DT), XGBOOST and Gradient Boosting (GB) classifier are some of the methods we utilize. Adaptive Boosting outperformed the other nine methods in our study. All the nine classifiers predict with high accuracy and among them, Adaptive Boosting (ADA Boosting) gives the maximum accuracy which is 93.00%.

Preoperative non-invasive histologic grading of breast cancer is essential. This study aimed to explore the effectiveness of a machine learning classification method based on Dempster-Shafer (D-S) evidence theory for the histologic grading of breast cancer. A total of 489 contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) slices with breast cancer lesions (including 171 grade Ⅰ, 140 grade Ⅱ, and 178 grade Ⅲ lesions) were used for analysis. All the lesions were segmented by two radiologists in consensus. For each slice, the quantitative pharmacokinetic parameters based on a modified Tofts model and the textural features of the segmented lesion on the image were extracted. Principal component analysis was then used to reduce feature dimensionality and obtain new features from the pharmacokinetic parameters and texture features. The basic confidence assignments of different classifiers were combined using D-S evidence theory based on the accuracy of three classifiers: support vector machine (SVM), Random Forest, and k-nearest neighbor (KNN). The performance of the machine learning techniques was evaluated in terms of accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and the area under the curve. The three classifiers showed varying accuracy across different categories. The accuracy of using D-S evidence theory in combination with multiple classifiers reached 92.86%, which was higher than that of using SVM (82.76%), Random Forest (78.85%), or KNN (87.82%) individually. The average area under the curve of using the D-S evidence theory combined with multiple classifiers reached 0.896, which was larger than that of using SVM (0.829), Random Forest (0.727), or KNN (0.835) individually. Multiple classifiers can be effectively combined based on D-S evidence theory to improve the prediction of histologic grade in breast cancer.

Technological advances in artificial intelligence have enabled scientists to obtain significant data in different application areas. Pattern recognition tasks can now be effectively performed on large datasets using artificial intelligence algorithms, particularly machine learning and deep learning techniques. In the context of epilepsy a neurological disorder electroencephalogram (EEG) signals are widely utilized to gather information about the brain’s electrical activity. In this study, the performance of five machine learning algorithms and one deep learning model was evaluated for the classification of epileptic seizures versus normal conditions using EEG signals obtained from individuals diagnosed with epilepsy. The machine learning techniques employed included K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Support Vector Machines (SVM), Adaptive Boosting (AdaBoost), Gaussian Naive Bayes (GNB), and Random Forest (RF), while the deep learning approach was based on a one-dimensional Convolutional Neural Network (1D-CNN). The dataset used for model training and evaluation was the publicly available University of Bonn EEG dataset. Among the machine learning methods, the Random Forest classifier achieved the highest performance, with an accuracy of 0.96, recall of 0.89, precision of 0.91, and an F1-score of 0.90. The 1D-CNN model demonstrated comparable results, achieving an accuracy of 0.96, recall of 0.87, precision of 0.93, and an F1-score of 0.90. These findings indicate that while the deep learning model provided a marginal improvement in precision over the best-performing machine learning algorithm, both approaches yielded similarly high classification performance in the detection of epileptic seizures from EEG data.

There has been steady progress in the field of affective computing over the last two decades that has integrated artificial intelligence techniques in the construction of computational models of emotion. Having, as a purpose, the development of a system for treating phobias that would automatically determine fear levels and adapt exposure intensity based on the user’s current affective state, we propose a comparative study between various machine and deep learning techniques (four deep neural network models, a stochastic configuration network, Support Vector Machine, Linear Discriminant Analysis, Random Forest and k-Nearest Neighbors), with and without feature selection, for recognizing and classifying fear levels based on the electroencephalogram (EEG) and peripheral data from the DEAP (Database for Emotion Analysis using Physiological signals) database. Fear was considered an emotion eliciting low valence, high arousal and low dominance. By dividing the ratings of valence/arousal/dominance emotion dimensions, we propose two paradigms for fear level estimation—the two-level (0—no fear and 1—fear) and the four-level (0—no fear, 1—low fear, 2—medium fear, 3—high fear) paradigms. Although all the methods provide good classification accuracies, the highest F scores have been obtained using the Random Forest Classifier—89.96% and 85.33% for the two-level and four-level fear evaluation modality.

Emotion recognition plays an essential role in human–computer interaction. Previous studies have investigated the use of facial expression and electroencephalogram (EEG) signals from single modal for emotion recognition separately, but few have paid attention to a fusion between them. In this paper, we adopted a multimodal emotion recognition framework by combining facial expression and EEG, based on a valence-arousal emotional model. For facial expression detection, we followed a transfer learning approach for multi-task convolutional neural network (CNN) architectures to detect the state of valence and arousal. For EEG detection, two learning targets (valence and arousal) were detected by different support vector machine (SVM) classifiers, separately. Finally, two decision-level fusion methods based on the enumerate weight rule or an adaptive boosting technique were used to combine facial expression and EEG. In the experiment, the subjects were instructed to watch clips designed to elicit an emotional response and then reported their emotional state. We used two emotion datasets—a Database for Emotion Analysis using Physiological Signals (DEAP) and MAHNOB-human computer interface (MAHNOB-HCI)—to evaluate our method. In addition, we also performed an online experiment to make our method more robust. We experimentally demonstrated that our method produces state-of-the-art results in terms of binary valence/arousal classification, based on DEAP and MAHNOB-HCI data sets. Besides this, for the online experiment, we achieved 69.75% accuracy for the valence space and 70.00% accuracy for the arousal space after fusion, each of which has surpassed the highest performing single modality (69.28% for the valence space and 64.00% for the arousal space). The results suggest that the combination of facial expressions and EEG information for emotion recognition compensates for their defects as single information sources. The novelty of this work is as follows. To begin with, we combined facial expression and EEG to improve the performance of emotion recognition. Furthermore, we used transfer learning techniques to tackle the problem of lacking data and achieve higher accuracy for facial expression. Finally, in addition to implementing the widely used fusion method based on enumerating different weights between two models, we also explored a novel fusion method, applying boosting technique.

Emotions play a vital role in recognizing a person’s thoughts and vary significantly with stress levels. Emotion and stress classification have gained considerable attention in robotics and artificial intelligence applications. While numerous methods based on machine learning techniques provide average classification performance, recent deep learning approaches offer enhanced results. This research presents a hybrid deep learning model that extracts features using AlexNet and DenseNet models, followed by feature fusion and dimensionality reduction via Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The reduced features are then classified using a multi-class Support Vector Machine (SVM) to categorize different types of emotions. The proposed model was evaluated using the DEAP and EEG Brainwave datasets, both well-suited for emotion analysis due to their comprehensive EEG signal recordings and diverse emotional stimuli. The DEAP dataset includes EEG signals from 32 participants who watched 40 one-minute music videos, while the EEG Brainwave dataset categorizes emotions into positive, negative, and neutral based on EEG recordings from participants exposed to six different film clips. The proposed model achieved an accuracy of 95.54% and 97.26% for valence and arousal categories in the DEAP dataset, respectively, and 98.42% for the EEG Brainwave dataset. These results significantly outperform existing methods, demonstrating the model’s superior performance in terms of precision, recall, F1-score, specificity, and Mathew correlation coefficient. The integration of AlexNet and DenseNet, combined with PCA and multi-class SVM, makes this approach particularly effective for capturing the intricate patterns in EEG data, highlighting its potential for applications in human-computer interaction and mental health monitoring, marking a significant advancement over traditional methods.

The IoMT is nothing but a technology phase breakthrough in the healthcare industry that uses wearables, and other low-level digital data collection devices for better patient care and operational efficiency. Through this research, we seek to bring together the opportunities and security threats related to IoMT with a special focus on machine learning algorithms as a predictive tool for health assessment. Empirical experiments were conducted to determine the performance of four machine learning techniques (Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, K-Nearest Neighbors, and Deep Learning Neural Network) using different set of data covering medical sensor data and patient's health records. The prediction results show that the DNN-based model had higher accuracy than other algorithms, its deep learning producing the right outcomes of 0. 88, precision of 0. 89, recall of 0. With more than eighty-seventy five percent recall rate and F1-score of 0. 88. The comparison will enlighten the advantages and shortcomings of various algorithms in using the IoMT data to predict the health outcomes, showing the prospect of the DNN as one of the better algorithms in the space. Along with this, this study brings to the foreground the significance of focusing on strong cybersecurity measures to ensure that patients’ data remains protected and IoMT ecosystems are free from flaws.

BackgroundOvarian clear cell carcinoma (OCCC) represents a subtype of ovarian epithelial carcinoma (OEC) known for its limited responsiveness to chemotherapy, and the onset of distant metastasis significantly impacts patient prognoses. This study aimed to identify potential risk factors contributing to the occurrence of distant metastasis in OCCC.MethodsUtilizing the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database, we identified patients diagnosed with OCCC between 2004 and 2015. The most influential factors were selected through the application of Gaussian Naive Bayes (GNB) and Adaboost machine learning algorithms, employing a Venn test for further refinement. Subsequently, six machine learning (ML) techniques, namely XGBoost, LightGBM, Random Forest (RF), Adaptive Boosting (Adaboost), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP), were employed to construct predictive models for distant metastasis. Shapley Additive Interpretation (SHAP) analysis facilitated a visual interpretation for individual patient. Model validity was assessed using accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, F1 score, and the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC).ResultsIn the realm of predicting distant metastasis, the Random Forest (RF) model outperformed the other five machine learning algorithms. The RF model demonstrated accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, F1 score, and AUC (95% CI) values of 0.792 (0.762–0.823), 0.904 (0.835–0.973), 0.759 (0.731–0.787), 0.221 (0.186–0.256), 0.974 (0.967–0.982), 0.353 (0.306–0.399), and 0.834 (0.696–0.967), respectively, surpassing the performance of other models. Additionally, the calibration curve's Brier Score (95%) for the RF model reached the minimum value of 0.06256 (0.05753–0.06759). SHAP analysis provided independent explanations, reaffirming the critical clinical factors associated with the risk of metastasis in OCCC patients.ConclusionsThis study successfully established a precise predictive model for OCCC patient metastasis using machine learning techniques, offering valuable support to clinicians in making informed clinical decisions.