Comparison between two-dimensional and three-dimensional imaging utilizing the Grummons frontal analysis

BackgroundThe emergence of robotic Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) imaging systems in trauma departments has enabled 3D anatomical assessment of musculoskeletal injuries, supplementing conventional 2D fluoroscopic imaging for examination, diagnosis, and treatment planning. To date, the primary focus has been on trauma sites in the extremities.PurposeTo determine if CBCT images can be used during the treatment planning process in spinal instrumentation and laminectomy procedures, allowing accurate 3D‐printed pedicle screw and laminectomy drill guides to be generated for the cervical and thoracic spine.MethodsThe accuracy of drill guides generated from CBCT images was assessed using animal cadavers (ovine and porcine). Preoperative scans were acquired using a robotic CBCT C‐arm system, the Siemens ARTIS pheno (Siemens Healthcare, GmbH, Germany). The CBCT images were imported into 3D‐Slicer version 4.10.2 (www.slicer.org) where vertebral models and specific guides were developed and subsequently 3D‐printed. In the ovine cadaver, 11 pedicle screw guides from the T1–T5 and T7–T12 vertebra and six laminectomy guides from the C2–C7 vertebra were planned and printed. In the porcine cadaver, nine pedicle screw guides from the C3–T4 vertebra were planned and printed. For the pedicle screw guides, accuracy was assessed by three observers according to pedicle breach via the Gertzbein–Robbins grading system as well as measured mean axial and sagittal screw error via postoperative CBCT and CT scans. For the laminectomies, the guides were designed to leave 1 mm of lamina. The average thickness of the lamina at the mid‐point was used to assess the accuracy of the guides, measured via postoperative CBCT and CT scans from three observers. For all measurements, the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was calculated to determine observer reliability.ResultsCompared with the planned screw angles for both the ovine and porcine procedures (n = 32), the mean axial and sagittal screw error measured on the postoperative CBCT scans from three observers were 3.9 ± 1.9° and 1.8 ± 0.8°, respectively. The ICC among the observes was 0.855 and 0.849 for the axial and sagittal measurements, respectively, indicating good reliability. In the ovine cadaver, directly comparing the measured axial and sagittal screw angle of the visible screws (n = 14) in the postoperative CBCT and conventional CT scans from three observers revealed an average difference 1.9 ± 1.0° in axial angle and 1.8 ± 1.0° in the sagittal angle. The average thickness of the lamina at the middle of each vertebra, as measured on‐screen in the postoperative CBCT scans by three observes was 1.6 ± 0.2 mm. The ICC among observers was 0.693, indicating moderate reliability. No lamina breaches were observed in the postoperative images.ConclusionHere, CBCT images have been used to generate accurate 3D‐printed pedicle screw and laminectomy drill guides for use in the cervical and thoracic spine. The results demonstrate sufficient precision compared with those previously reported, generated from standard preoperative CT and MRI scans, potentially expanding the treatment planning capabilities of robotic CBCT imaging systems in trauma departments and operating rooms.

Real-time Intraoperative Computed Tomography Assessment of Quality of Permanent Interstitial Seed Implantation for Prostate Cancer

Letters to the Editor.

This retrospective case review was performed with the aim to asses the value of cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) in the preoperative diagnosis of otosclerosis. A total of 32 patients with histologically confirmed stapedial otosclerosis, who underwent unilateral stapedectomies were analyzed. Preoperative temporal bone CBCT scans were performed in all cases. CBCT imaging was characterized by a slice thickness of 0.3 mm and multiplanar image reconstruction. Histopathologic examination of the removed stapes footplates was performed in all cases. Findings of CBCT were categorized according to Marshall's grading system (from grade 0 to grade 3). Histopathologic results were correlated to multiplanar reconstructed CBCT scans, respectively. Histologically active foci of otosclerosis (n = 21) were identified by CBCT in all cases with a sensitivity of 100 %. However, CBCT was unable to detect histologically inactive otosclerosis (n = 11, sensitivity = 0 %). According to CBCT scans, no retrofenestral lesions were found and all positive cases were recruited into the grade 1 group indicating solely fenestral lesions at the anterior pole of stapes footplates. In conclusion, CBCT is a reliable imaging method with considerably lower radiation dose than high-resolution CT (HRCT) in the preoperative diagnosis of otosclerosis. These results indicate that CBCT has high sensitivity and specificity in the detection of hypodense lesions due to histologically active otosclerosis.

ObjectivesSegmentation of anatomical structures on dento-maxillo-facial (DMF) computed tomography (CT) or cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) scans is increasingly needed in digital dentistry. The main aim of this research was to propose and evaluate a novel open source tool called DentalSegmentator for fully automatic segmentation of five anatomical structures on DMF CT and CBCT scans: maxilla/upper skull, mandible, upper teeth, lower teeth, and the mandibular canal. MethodsA retrospective sample of 470 CT and CBCT scans was used as a training/validation set. The performance and generalizability of the tool was evaluated by comparing segmentations provided by experts and automatic segmentations in two hold-out test datasets: an internal dataset of 133 CT and CBCT scans acquired before orthognathic surgery and an external dataset of 123 CBCT scans randomly sampled from routine examinations in 5 institutions. ResultsThe mean overall results in the internal test dataset (n = 133) were a Dice similarity coefficient (DSC) of 92.2 ± 6.3 % and a normalised surface distance (NSD) of 98.2 ± 2.2 %. The mean overall results on the external test dataset (n = 123) were a DSC of 94.2 ± 7.4 % and a NSD of 98.4 ± 3.6 %. ConclusionsThe results obtained from this highly diverse dataset demonstrate that this tool can provide fully automatic and robust multiclass segmentation for DMF CT and CBCT scans. To encourage the clinical deployment of DentalSegmentator, the pre-trained nnU-Net model has been made publicly available along with an extension for the 3D Slicer software. Clinical significanceDentalSegmentator open source 3D Slicer extension provides a free, robust, and easy-to-use approach to obtaining patient-specific three-dimensional models from CT and CBCT scans. These models serve various purposes in a digital dentistry workflow, such as visualization, treatment planning, intervention, and follow-up.

Comparison between effective radiation dose of CBCT and MSCT scanners for dentomaxillofacial applications

Objective: To assess the correlation between alveolar cleft measurements obtained from conventional radiography and cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT). Method: Eleven patients treated at ‘Associacao Maranhense da Alegria’, a non-profit organization that offers treatment to patients with cleft lip and palate, were included in this cross-sectional, descriptive study. All patients presented pre-incisive and trans-incisive foramen clefts and had not been treated with bone grafting. Periapical and occlusal radiographs and CBCT scans were obtained from all patients. The following measurements were determined: on periapical radiographs, cleft width in relation to the adjacent teeth in the a) apical, b) middle, and c) cervical thirds; on occlusal radiographs, cleft width based on the d) buccal, e) middle, and f) palatal aspects of the cleft; on CBCT scans, cleft width in relation to the adjacent teeth in the g) apical, h) middle, and i) cervical thirds, in a panoramic longitudinal section, for the assessment of correlation with periapical radiographic findings, and cleft width based on the j) buccal, l) middle, and m) palatal aspects of the cleft, in axial sections, for the assessment of correlation with occlusal radiographic findings. Radiographic measurements were calculated using a millimeter ruler and CBCT measurements were made using the i-CAT Vision software. Statistical analysis was performed by Spearman’s rank correlation test using and the software SPSS Statistics 17 for Windows. Results: The following correlation coefficients were found between periapical radiography and CBCT: 0.618 in the apical third (significance ρ=0.05), 0.556 in the middle third (significance ρ=0.05), and 0.963 in the cervical third (significance ρ=0.01). Results between occlusal radiography and CBCT were as follows: 0.712 on the buccal aspect (significance ρ=0.01), 0.568 on the middle aspect, and 0.679 on the palatal aspect (both significant at ρ=0.05). Conclusion: These findings indicate different positive correlation coefficients between measurements obtained from conventional radiography vs. CBCT, especially between periapical radiography and CBCT in the cervical third, and between occlusal radiography and CBCT on the buccal aspect of the cleft.

Our aim was to evaluate the effects of balloon sinuplasty on the size of the ostium in the maxillary sinuses in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis from cone beam computer tomography (CBCT) scans of the sinus. This is a blinded retrospective trial in patients who had undergone balloon sinuplasty of the maxillary sinus. CBCT scans were taken and SNOT-22 Quality of Life questionnaire completed before and 12 months after the operation. The size of the maxillary ostium was measured from the CBCT scans three-dimensionally. The association of changes in the SNOT-22 scores of the ostium was analysed. We discovered that the balloon sinuplasty increased the size of the maxillary ostium in all dimensions. The changes were statistically significant (p<0.05) in the axial diameter and the ostium area. The number of patent ostia increased after the intervention. The association between SNOT-22 score and ostium patency were statistically significant before the operation. Our conclusion is that the threedimensional measuring technique provides a reliable method to evaluate ostium dimensions. Balloon sinuplasty increased the size of the maxillary ostium and the result was maintained for 12 months after the operation.

X-ray imaging dose from computed tomography (CT) or cone beam CT (CBCT) scans has become a serious concern. Patient-specific imaging dose calculation has been proposed for the purpose of dose management. While Monte Carlo (MC) dose calculation can be quite accurate for this purpose, it suffers from low computational efficiency. In response to this problem, we have successfully developed a MC dose calculation code, gCTD, on GPU architecture under the NVIDIA CUDA platform for fast and accurate estimation of the x-ray imaging dose received by a patient during a CT or CBCT scan. Techniques have been developed particularly for the GPU architecture to achieve high computational efficiency. Dose calculations using CBCT scanning geometry in a homogeneous water phantom and a heterogeneous Zubal head phantom have shown good agreement between gCTD and EGSnrc, indicating the accuracy of our code. In terms of improved efficiency, it is found that gCTD attains a speed-up of ∼400 times in the homogeneous water phantom and ∼76.6 times in the Zubal phantom compared to EGSnrc. As for absolute computation time, imaging dose calculation for the Zubal phantom can be accomplished in ∼17 s with the average relative standard deviation of 0.4%. Though our gCTD code has been developed and tested in the context of CBCT scans, with simple modification of geometry it can be used for assessing imaging dose in CT scans as well.

Objectives Facial asymmetry in orthodontic treatments can be evaluated by both posteroanterior (PA) cephalograms and cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) images. This study aimed to assess the agreement between CBCT and two-dimensional PA images in terms of cephalometric measurements. Methods In this descriptive analytical study, CBCT and PA radiographs were taken from nine human dry skulls. Two observers marked the bilateral landmarks including CO (orbit center), J (jugale), 6C, 6A, 1A, 1C, GO (gonial angle), AG (antegonion), AR (articular) and Ma (mastoidal). The distance between two identical points on both sides was measured on both the PA and CBCT images. The differences were calculated and the agreement between the two modalities was checked by using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Results The mean differences between CBCT and PA measurements were as following: for CO=1.48, J=11.64, U6C=0.75, U6A=1.8, L6C=13.33, L6A=3.0, U1C=0.96, U1A=0.62, L1C=0.22, L1A=0.45, GO=0.87, AG=6.67 and AR=0.71 mm. The agreement was the highest for GO (ICC=0.931) and CO (ICC=0.902), and the lowest for U6A (ICC=-0.041) and J (ICC=0.038) landmarks. Conclusion Given the negligible differences between the two modalities, conventional PA cephalograms can be as competent as CBCT in detecting maxillofacial asymmetry with lower patient radiation dose.

Purpose: The introduction of cone‐beam CT (CBCT) based IGRT has greatly improved our knowledge of patient anatomy during treatment. However, the calculation of dose distributions based on CBCT images is problematic, due to poor consistency of density calibration and image artefacts. A method for correcting CBCT images for use in dose calculations has been developed and implemented at our institution. Method and Materials: Post processing of the Elekta Synergy CBCT scans was performed to remove artefacts and spurious density variations. In the algorithm the pre‐treatment CT scan was used as a reference for the density of regions in the CBCT image, providing a ‘shading map’ of the differences between the two. Smoothing of the shading map was performed to remove high frequency content. Testing of the correction algorithm compared density values for corresponding tissue types, certified that non‐artefact density changes are maintained, and compared dose calculations based on corrected CBCT scans to pre‐treatment CT calculations. Results: CBCT based dose calculations have been developed for prostate &amp; lung treatment sites. For both sites the densities within the corrected CBCT scan were closer to those in the pre‐treatment CT scan. In the example of prostate patients CT numbers in regions of fat and muscle tissue in the corrected CBCT were within 1% of the values in the planning CT, as opposed to 10–20% different for the un‐corrected CBCT. The improvement in the density within the CBCT scan improves the dosimetric quality of the scan, providing a means of more automated treatment planning based on CBCT scans. Conclusion: A method for correcting CBCT scans for re‐calculation of delivered dose has been developed and validated. The enhanced CBCT scans greatly improve the agreement between CBCT calculated doses and the expectation based on the planning CT.

Objective To study the more safe and accurate guidance scheme of cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) in nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Methods CBCT was regularly performed on 87 patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma in Meizhou People's Hospital from November 2014 to August 2015. For each patient, 10 times CBCT scans were obtained pre-treatment. All the setup errors were obtained and analysed on the orientation X (left and right), Y (head and foot) and Z (vertical) axis. Results With the increase of the number of CBCT scans, there was no statistically significant difference among the mean setup errors of the 10 times scans in X (left and right) and Y (head and foot) directions (all P > 0.05). And there was no statistically significant difference among the mean setup errors of 6 times scans in Z (vertical) direction, but from the beginning of the 7th, the systematic error in Z direction was increasing, the system error of the 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th time was 0.140, 0.292, 0.461, and 0.640 mm. Moreover, the difference of the mean systematic errors among the first 7 times was statistically significant (H = 15.232, P = 0.019), and the differences of the mean systematic errors among the first 8, 9 and 10 times were statistically significant (all P < 0.05). Conclusions Non-consecutive scans of CBCT could reduce the systematic and random errors. The appropriate frequency of application of CBCT based on the change law of setup errors is an ideal CBCT guidance scheme for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Key words: Nasopharyngeal neoplasms; Imaging guided radiation therapy; Cone beam computed tomography; Setup errors

Purpose: To investigate the accuracy and feasibility of cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) for stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) setup. Method and Materials: A stereotactic BRW frame was attached to a Rando head phantom with imbedded radio-opaque markers (1mm in diameter) simulating the target locations. The head phantom with a CT localizer was first simulated for radiosurgery planning on a conventional CT scanner and then scanned on a treatment machine using CBCT. The differences between the conventional and CBCT localizations of the target positions were computed using a radiosurgery planning software. The translational corrections for target positions were calculated as the differences between the CBCT coordinates of the machine isocenter and the planned isocenters, which were the planned BRW coordinates from the conventional CT scan multiplied by the transformation matrix between the BRW and CBCT coordinate systems on the CBCT scan. The setup accuracy of CBCT was assessed from the analysis of orthogonal projection images for each radio-opaque target at the machine isocenter. Results: All nine fiducial markers of BRW localizer were successfully identified on all but one slice of the CBCT scan. The average localization difference between the conventional CT and CBCT BRW target coordinates was 0.28mm (SD 0.10mm). The mean distance error for all the radio-opaque targets localized using the CBCT and orthogonal projection images was 1.28mm (SD 0.61 mm). The major contributing factor to this cumulative setup error was the uncertainty in the superior-inferior direction due to the 2mm slice thickness in conventional CT. Conclusion: The CBCT image guidance can be used to setup SRS patients within accuracy comparable to the current SRS standard using an external fiducial system. The technique described here can serve as a gold standard for evaluating the accuracy of alternative immobilization and setup devices for SRS.

Objectives. To investigate the availability of correction of mandibular plane using software for vertical measurements in cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) according to the sites of the mandible. Methods. CBCT scans of six dry mandibles were performed at 0-, 5-, 10-, 15-, and 20-degree angles relative to CBCT scanning table. Using the imaging software, mandibular planes of the different angles were corrected to that of 0-degree angle on the CBCT images. Before and after correction of the mandibular planes, the distance from the mandibular canal to the alveolar crest was measured at M1, M2, and M3 areas of the mandible and vertical measurements were statistically compared with those of 0-angle location using the paired t-test. Results. Prior to correction, the vertical measurements increased as the angle increased. The greatest differences of measurements were observed in M3 areas (P < 0.05). After correction, a strong correlation was found in measurements between the 0-degree angle and the other angles in all sites of the mandible (P > 0.05). Conclusions. The vertical measurements of CBCT were significantly influenced by mandibular positioning. When CBCT scans are performed at angles other than 0-degree angle, software-based correction of the mandibular plane can be a reliable tool for the accurate vertical measurements in CBCT.

"High-precision, reconstructed 3D model" of skull scanned by conebeam CT: Reproducibility verified using CAD/CAM data.