Complexity of Agency in VR Learning Environments: Exploring Associations with Interactivity, Learning Outcomes, and Affect

Virtual reality is revolutionising science education, particularly in microbiology, by allowing students to explore intricate structures as if they were the size of a bacterium. This study investigates the impact of different levels of immersion and signalling principles on students’ presence, interest, and engagement in VR learning environments. Results indicate that in low-immersive virtual reality (LiVR), the use of the signalling principle (SP) significantly enhances presence, interest, and engagement compared to the non-signalling principle (NSP). However, in High Immersive Virtual Reality (HiVR), there were no significant differences in presence or interest between SP and NSP groups, although HiVR resulted in significantly higher engagement than LiVR. These findings suggest that while signalling principles enhance learner experiences in lower immersive settings, their impact diminishes in higher immersive contexts. This study underscores the importance of considering immersion levels and instructional design principles in creating effective VR learning environments, especially for complex subjects like microbiology. The insights gained highlight the transformative potential of VR in education, providing immersive, interactive, and impactful learning experiences that deepen students’ understanding and engagement.

BackgroundVirtual reality (VR) offers significant potential for hands‐on learning environments by providing immersive and visually stimulating experiences. Interacting with such environments can bring numerous benefits to learning, including enhanced engagement, knowledge construction, and higher‐order thinking. However, many current VR studies in hands‐on learning tend to utilise one‐way learning materials, limiting participants' ability to interact with and reflect on their actions and learning experiences. Moreover, these studies often neglect to assess learners' capacity to transfer their skills from VR learning to real‐world scenarios. Therefore, this study aims to investigate participants' engagement, learning outcomes, higher‐order thinking, and their ability to apply acquired skills in real‐world contexts.Method and ObjectiveParticipants were immersed in a hands‐on learning environment in VR, where they received feedback and engaged in reflection during the learning process. This study recruited 68 university students to participate in the experiment, employing a quasi‐experimental design. Participants experienced learning units both with and without reflection on the feedback. The theme of these learning units was related to embedded systems, encompassing topics such as the assembly of embedded components and Python programming. The investigation aimed to assess whether reflection in VR could enhance cognitive levels, engagement, real‐world hands‐on tasks abilities, and higher‐order thinking.ResultsThe research results indicate that in the VR hands‐on learning environment, participants engage in reflection through the provided feedback, effectively enhancing their engagement, cognitive levels, and hands‐on task abilities. Simultaneously, it also successfully assists participants in developing problem‐solving skills and critical thinking in higher‐order thinking.ConclusionsParticipants actively engaged in reflection on their own learning tasks and actions within the hands‐on learning environment, enabling them to develop a deeper understanding of the learning material and enhance their real‐world hands‐on tasks abilities, we encourage the integration of reflection strategies in VR learning environments for hands‐on learning, as they can yield positive benefits for learners.

This study aims to analyze: 1) The influence of learning styles on learning outcomes, 2) the influence of learning independence on learning outcomes, 3) the influence of parental motivation on learning outcomes, 4) the influence of the learning environment on learning outcomes, 5) the influence of learning styles, learning independence, parental motivation and learning environment on accounting learning outcomes in class X and X1 students of SMK Negeri 4 Sijunjung. This type of research is associative. The population in this study were class X and X1 Accounting students at SMK N 4 Sijunjung in the 2024/2025 academic year, totaling 58 people. Sampling using the Total sampling technique is a technique for taking samples as a whole. The analysis used was descriptive and inductive analysis, using multiple linear regression with the help of SPSS version 20 and EVIEWS version 10. The results of this study indicate that: (1) Learning style has a significant positive influence between learning styles and learning outcomes; (2) learning independence has a significant positive influence between learning independence and learning outcomes; (3) parental motivation has a significant positive influence between parental motivation and learning outcomes; (4) learning environment has a significant positive influence between learning environment and learning outcomes; (5) the influence of learning style, learning independence, parental motivation, and learning environment on learning outcomes due to grades.

This study aims to determine the influence of learning facilities and learning environment on student learning outcomes in the Vocational Learning Evaluation course, as well as to determine the role of learning motivation mediation. This study uses a quantitative method with a survey approach. The research sample was taken using a purposive sampling technique totaling 69 students of the Automotive Engineering Education Study Program, Semarang State University (UNNES) class of 2022 who took the Vocational Learning Evaluation course. The research will be carried out in the fifth semester of 2024. Data processing is carried out using the SmartPLS 4 application. The research instrument is in the form of a questionnaire that has been validated by experts. This study tested direct and indirect (intervening) hypotheses, with independent variables, namely learning facilities (X1) and learning environment (X2), dependent variables of learning outcomes (Z1), and learning motivation (Y1) as intervening variables. Data analysis included convergent validity tests, discriminant validity, reliability estimation, R-Square values, F-Square, hypothesis tests, and Goodness of Fit (GoF). The results of the study show that the model used is reliable. The path coefficient between learning facilities and learning outcomes was 0.377, learning facilities to learning motivation was 0.317, learning environment to learning outcomes was 0.312, learning environment to learning motivation was 0.527, and learning motivation to learning outcomes was 0.282. The total indirect effects between learning facilities and learning outcomes were 0.089, while between learning environment and learning outcomes were 0.149. Positive values in each relationship indicate a positive influence between variables. The results of this study prove that learning motivation plays a significant role as a mediating variable in influencing student learning outcomes. These findings emphasize the importance of providing adequate learning facilities and a conducive learning environment to increase student motivation and learning outcomes in the Vocational Learning Evaluation course.

This study explores the influence of learning environment factor and academic involvement factor on students’ learning outcomes. The sample includes 3,946 undergraduates in Xi’an Jiaotong University. The variables about learning environment, academic involvement and learning outcomes are constructed in terms of the questionnaire “Xi’an Jiaotong University Undergraduate Experience Survey”. The study results indicate that learning environment and academic involvement significantly influence students’ learning outcomes. Meanwhile, the practical and policy significance of this study results in promoting students’ learning and development is also discussed.

Learning is the process of interaction between students, educators, and learning resources within a learning environment. Technology support refers to the use of technology or digital platforms that can help facilitate learning, while learning outcomes are the achievements that students attain after participating in learning activities. The aim of this study is to examine the influence of case-based learning and technology support on students' learning outcomes. This research employs a quantitative approach with a survey method, and the data are analyzed using SPSS. The results indicate that case-based learning does not have a strong influence on students' learning outcomes; however, technology support has a strong influence on learning outcomes. Nevertheless, technology support does not have a strong influence on the success of case-based learning.

Effect of disfluency on learning outcomes, metacognitive judgments and cognitive load in computer assisted learning environments

As I wrote the Editorial for the last issue of the journal, I could never have imagined the different world in which we now live as a result of COVID-19. The importance of information that is consistent and evidence-based has never been more essential for occupational therapists and the people who access our services. Occupational Therapy Australia have supported the profession with lobbying and advocacy activities, regular communications, and resources such as guidelines that outline the practical and ethical considerations for delivering clinical care using telehealth (Occupational Therapy Australia, 2020). The sudden move to online technologies has been experienced by many within the profession and this editorial will discuss online learning within occupational therapy education. In the COVID-19 response, university educators were required to move all teaching and assessment activities online at relatively short notice. As a result, all classes, simulations, practicums, vivas, and assessment, etc. were adapted for the online environment and launched. From an educator perspective, the hours of planning and preparation, and the newly developed skills have been exceptional. From a student perspective, there has been adaptation and the opportunity to develop new skills, possibly including the provision of occupational therapy services via telehealth. As an example, imagine an online classroom with five breakout rooms—within each breakout room there is an actor who is a simulated patient. Each simulated patient will meet with a different student every 20 min in an occupational therapy session, and 100 students will have this experience across the day. In the background, staff are marshalling the students, coordinating the entry into and out of the virtual breakout rooms, and providing feedback and support to the students and actors. This type of activity is exhausting for staff and anxiety producing for students when conducted face-to-face in rooms along an actual corridor—and this is magnified when conducted virtually. All educators, students, support staff, and actors are to be congratulated for what you have navigated and achieved. This is not the first time that learning has been delivered online within occupational therapy curricula. Blended learning is the preferred approach of education providers, promoting the integration of online and traditional face-to-face learning experiences within a program. However, this is the first time that all learning has been delivered online and, from an organisational perspective, each university will undoubtedly seek to understand the student experience and explore what can be retained as online learning into the future. There is a need for caution here: these changes have been made in a short timeframe, under extreme circumstances, and it is important that any future decisions consider the impact on the learning environment and the learning outcomes. More importantly, it is essential that we consider the ongoing issue of equity. COVID-19 and the switch to online learning has created inequities within the student body. Students are disadvantaged when they do not have access to a computer or internet at home. This has been particularly noticeable during the COVID-19 online learning environment when all alternate options for computer and internet access were unavailable, such as in public libraries or university campuses. From a curriculum perspective, it is essential to review how online learning aligns with the pedagogy of the program, and the experience and well-being of the students. Students in the current online environment have spoken of challenges with self-regulation skills such as time management and motivation, and that they feel isolated and distant from the learning. This experience aligns with previous findings that student challenges in the online environment of blending learning include: self-regulation; technological literacy and competency; student isolation; technological sufficiency; and technological complexity (Rasheed, Kamsin, & Abdullah, 2020). There is a need to keep the focus on the students, their experiences, and their learning. Smith and Hill (2018) highlight that blended learning is only effective when the purpose of the online content is clear with explicit links made to the face-to-face classes. The learning environment is complex and further research is required to determine when and how online learning can support occupational therapy curricula to achieve their learning and graduate outcomes. In conclusion, occupational therapy education has momentarily gone online. The educators and occupational therapy students have demonstrated that we can adapt courses and programs to an online format, and both groups will have undoubtedly gained transferrable skills within this online environment. However, despite demonstrating that it is possible, it is important to remember that this change has been undertaken during a crisis situation, and we must move carefully forwards adopting an evidence-based approach. Blended learning should remain the preferred approach and research is required to establish what online components can remain to support the development of occupational therapy knowledge, skills, and competencies.

Learning outcomes are the acquisition of learning carried out during the training and their competence tested at the end of the training period. Training with interests will get more results than no individual interests. The learning environment becomes important during the teaching and learning process for participants who take part in the training at the Job Training Center. This research was conducted with the aim of knowing the Contribution of Learning Interest and Learning Environment to the Learning Outcomes of Training Participants at the Job Training Center (BLK) Padang City. The type of research used is quantitative research while the method is associative. The population is BLK Padang training participants for the period 1 of 2021 in 18 vocational schools totaling 288 participants with a sample of 74 people. Data collection techniques in the form of questionnaires with data collection tools in the form of questionnaires and documentation. The data analysis technique is percentage, then continued with categorization through the respondent's achievement level formula and hypothesis testing using the t-test formula. The results of the analysis of interest in learning obtained the value of tcount > ttable, namely 8,613 > 1,987 with a significant result of 0.000 < 0.05, this illustrates that there is a significant influence between interest in learning and learning outcomes. Then the learning environment is obtained from the value of tcount > ttable, namely -6.384 < 1.987 with a significant result of 0.000 < 0.05, this illustrates that there is a significant influence between the learning environment on learning outcomes. By using a one-way test so that the results are Ho is accepted and Ha is rejected. This proves simultaneously (together) interest in learning and the learning environment has a significant influence on learning outcomes.

This research aims to increase understanding and acceptance of concepts in Islamic religious learning, create a learning environment that motivates students, and optimize students' cognitive function in learning Islamic religious education. This research method uses a survey method and One Way ANOVA test analysis to see the relationship between student learning outcomes in Islamic religious education learning through the Brain-Based Learning (BBL) model and the student's school origin. The population of this study was class VIII students at MTs Arrukhshatul 'Ulum, SMP Nurul Huda Syafiiyyah, and SMP Roudlotul Ulum with a sample of 30 students at MTs Arrukhshatul 'Ulum, 29 students at SMP Nurul Huda Syafiiyyah, and 31 students at SMP Roudlotul Ulum for a total of 90 students. In this study, the average scores for student learning outcomes at Arrukhshatul 'Ulum MTs, Nurul Huda Syafiiyyah Middle School, and Roudlotul Ulum Middle School were 63.47, 64.28, 64.77. Meanwhile, the values ​​of the standard deviation are 14,044, 17,169, and 14,585. Based on the ANOVA one way test, there were no differences in student learning outcomes in learning Islamic religious education through the Brain-Based Learning model between students at MTs Arrukhshatul 'Ulum, SMP Nurul Huda Syafiiyyah, and SMP Roudlotul Ulum. So that further research can be carried out using the ANOVA two way test which can classify according to gender and cognitive level of students to find out the inherent conclusions based on inferential statistics.

Assessing learning outcomes in two information retrieval learning environments

Students in Islamic boarding schools have different learning environments, either living in dormitories or outside, which can influence their learning models and outcomes. This study aims to examine the differences in learning models and learning outcomes between dormitory and non-dormitory students at Pondok Pesantren Putri Yatama Mandiri Gowa. The research employed a qualitative method with data collected through observation, interviews, and documentation. The findings indicate that both groups apply similar learning models to those in general schools; however, dormitory students receive additional lessons through extracurricular activities outside regular school hours. Overall, both groups achieve good and satisfactory learning outcomes, but dormitory students excel in memorization and additional religious subjects. These findings imply the need for equitable learning strategies for all students, as well as specific support for subjects perceived as difficult, such as mathematics, English, and memorization.

Investigating the effects of different levels of students' regulation support on learning process and outcome: In search of the optimal level of support for self-regulated learning

One of the essential factors in a learning process, especially in higher education, is lecturer performance. This study aims to discover the impact of a lecturer's performance on students learning outcomes in the online learning environment. Lecturer performance is represented by four aspects which are the lecturer's performance on learning technology (X1), the lecturer's performance on learning pedagogy (X2), the lecturer's performance on supporting learners (X3), and the lecturer's performance on supporting educators (X4). This quantitative research approach aims to discover one variable's cause-and-effect relationship to another. The subject of this study is 37 lecturers and 146 students. The result shows that the lecturer's performance contributes 43.1% to students' learning outcomes. It is known that learning technology and pedagogy aspects have a significant effect on students' learning outcomes. However, supporting learners and educators does not significantly impact students' learning outcomes. Therefore, the lecturer's performance positively impacts learning outcomes and is valuable for further online learning development. A potential research contribution could be to investigate further the relationship between specific aspects of a lecturer's performance and students' learning outcomes in an online learning environment. this study's findings have significant implications for higher education institutions seeking to improve online learning experiences for students. By identifying the specific aspects of lecturer performance that most impact learning outcomes, institutions can provide targeted support and training to their lecturers, ultimately leading to improved learning outcomes for students in online learning environments.

The inclusion of digital multimedia into teaching and learning has changed instructional strategies in the classroom. While this course has been traditionally given in lecture-based environment, an attempt was made to move it towards a more multimedia-mediated environment to provide a student-centred approach in teaching the principles of animation. The aim of this project is to incorporate Gagne’s 9 Events of Instructions in a multimedia-mediated student-centred learning environment to teach an animation course and to study its impact on student learning. The study assesses the effects the learning environment has on the students’ learning outcome as well as their perceptions in this learning environment. Therefore, data was gathered through various research instruments including surveys and questionnaires to garner their perceptions and their feedback on the learning environment. Furthermore, tests were administrated to the students to gauge their learning outcome. The results were later analysed using a paired t-test. The results were positive and encouraging. They show that the students were motivated and were actively pursuing their learning at their own pace. They enjoyed this self-directed learning approach and liked using multimedia to stimulate and enhance their learning process. The paper also provides evidence that will benefit those wanting to switch from traditional classroom to a more technological and multimedia oriented student-centred learning environment as this learning environment proves to be a viable alternative teaching approach to learning the principles of animation.