Conceptual Performance Analysis Eliminates Distributed System Design Risks

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The present work highlights a case-study that aims to determine the performance (power input/output) and battery temperature on in-house developed e-rickshaw battery pack. With the rise of e-rickshaws in Indian market, the demand for the batteries have also increased and being the largest state-run energy company of India, R&D Centre of Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) has developed a chemically modified nanomaterial-based lead acid battery.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The lab scale experiments, which are not presented in the study due to confidentiality and intellectual property obligations, indicated that the nanomaterial doped lead acid battery pack performs better than the control (reference) and leading commercial batteries in terms of lifecycle, capacity etc. Subsequently, this paper highlights the performance with IOC R&D Centre manufactured 12V/100AH chemically modified (nanomaterial) lead acid battery pack for e-rickshaw on duty cycle developed indigenously based on the city driving experiences.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The candidate battery pack of e-rickshaw were duly subjected for evaluation in comparison with control batteries (conventional lead acid configuration) along with leading commercial batteries. The performance tests for the e-rickshaw were conducted on chassis dynamometer which followed in-house charge-discharge cycles and measurement of power input & output with a sophisticated measurement device i.e., power analyzer.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The nanomaterial impeded electroplates were made to enhance capacity and durability of lead acid battery and thereon the performance evaluation of e-rickshaws powered by nanomaterial-based control & commercial batteries were conducted in terms of Watt-hour (WH), Ampere-hour (AH), distance travelled per discharge cycle, durability & life cycle measurement by charging and discharging of batteries.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Further, discharge (energy dissipation) of batteries were done by in-house developed driving cycle on chassis dynamometer. The cumulative distance covered under the driving cycle by nanomaterial powered e-rickshaw has shown significant improvement than the control and commercial batteries. Furthermore, it is concluded that in terms of durability, nanomaterial-based battery pack is better compared to control and commercial batteries for the SoC and battery temperature which are key performance parameters.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">In today’s market, faster product development without compromising durability is essential. Durability assessment ensures a vehicle maintains structural integrity under normal and extreme conditions. Achieving this requires effective Road Load Data Acquisition, integrated with robust design practices and efficient validation processes. However, physical RLDA is time-consuming and costly, as it depends on prototype vehicles that are often available only in the later development stages. Failures identified during these late-stage tests can delay the product launch significantly.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This study presents a full digital methodology of fatigue life estimation for suspension aggregates. A study has been demonstrated on Rear Twist Beam component of rear suspension. The approach integrates the digital RLDA methodology presented in literature and finite element analysis simulation process, enabling durability assessments entirely within the virtual domain. This approach demonstrates how digital RLDA-derived loads, combined with finite element analysis simulations, can accelerate the product development life cycle by avoiding dependency on physical RLDA loads for durability assessments. This allows for proactive durability assessments without extensive dependency on Rig Level component testing, aggregate level testing, physical prototypes and RLDA loads.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The proposed digital framework is validated against experimental results and shows strong correlation with actual fatigue behavior. It provides a reliable and efficient tool for early design phase fatigue assessment, supporting faster design iterations, reducing Computer-Aided Engineering loops and thereby minimizing development time and costs. This paper describes the advantages of a fully digital approach to the product development lifecycle using Digital RLDA and finite element analysis simulations over the traditional approach of vehicle validation.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">As aircraft programs currently ramp up, productivity of assembly processes needs to be improved while keeping quality, reliability and manufacturing cost requirements. Efficiency of the drilling process still remains an issue particularly in the case of CFRP/metal stacks: hot and long metallic chips are difficult to remove and often damage the surface of CFRP holes.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Low frequency axial vibration drilling has been proposed to solve this issue. This innovative drilling process allows breaking up the metallic chips in such a way that jamming is avoided.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper presents a case of CFRP/Ti6Al4V drilling on a CNC machine where productivity must be increased. A comparison is made between the current regular process and the MITIS drilling process. First the analysis and comparison method is presented. The current process is analyzed and its limits are highlighted. Then the vibration process is implemented and its performances are studied. Both processes are compared according to the following criteria: chip morphology, thrust force, power consumption, tool life, cycle time, holes quality and manufacturing costs.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Results show that the vibration drilling process is more productive and reliable, while maintaining the quality as well as reducing manufacturing costs. The paper also shows that the vibration drilling allows simplifying cutting tool design and reducing lubrication.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Electric Vehicles (EVs) are rapidly transforming the automotive landscape, offering a cleaner and more sustainable alternative to internal combustion engine vehicles. As EV adoption grows, optimizing energy consumption becomes critical to enhancing vehicle efficiency and extending driving range. One of the most significant auxiliary loads in EVs is the climate control system, commonly referred to as HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning). HVAC systems can consume a substantial portion of the battery's energy—especially under extreme weather conditions—leading to a noticeable reduction in vehicle range.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This energy demand poses a challenge for EV manufacturers and users alike, as range anxiety remains a key barrier to widespread EV acceptance. Consequently, developing intelligent climate control strategies is essential to minimize HVAC power consumption without compromising passenger comfort. These strategies may include predictive thermal management, cabin pre-conditioning, zonal climate control, and integration with renewable energy sources. By implementing such energy-efficient solutions, EVs can achieve better range performance, improved user satisfaction, and greater environmental benefits.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Modern EV climate control systems increasingly rely on intelligent features such as Auto mode, which dynamically adjusts fan speed, airflow direction, and temperature settings based on real-time cabin and ambient conditions. By leveraging sensor data and adaptive control algorithms, Auto mode optimizes thermal comfort while minimizing unnecessary energy expenditure. This automated regulation plays a crucial role in reducing HVAC-related power consumption, thereby contributing to overall range improvement and enhancing system efficiency without compromising passenger comfort.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This study focuses on the development of three distinct Auto mode calibration levels for each set condition, designed to achieve the same cabin temperature with varying dynamic responses and energy consumption profiles. In Auto mode, the cabin temperature is regulated through intelligent control of compressor speed, blower speed, and evaporator temperature. While all Auto levels can maintain the desired setpoint, the time required to reach this temperature and the system’s responsiveness to sudden thermal loads can vary significantly. This study introduces three distinct calibration profiles, each engineered to achieve the same cabin temperature under different dynamic conditions and energy consumption levels. These profiles allow users to choose between faster thermal response or reduced power usage, effectively enabling a trade-off between immediate comfort and extended driving range</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Over the past few decades, there has been a notable increase in stakeholder’s attention on Earth's climate. The automotive industry, being a major contributor to this phenomenon, has been endeavoring to mitigate its impact through various measures. These efforts include reducing emissions in existing internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles and promoting electric vehicles (EVs) as a feasible alternative for consumers. Despite these initiatives, there remains a persistent challenge in improving the fuel economy and driving range of vehicles.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">India, located along the Tropic of Cancer, experiences both tropical and subtropical climates. As a result, a substantial portion of the total heat absorbed is from solar radiation. The higher heat load necessitates extensive use of air conditioning (AC) systems, which significantly contributes to the overall power consumption of vehicles. Various measures are being implemented to mitigate this heat load and enhance the efficiency of AC operations. This study aims to investigate the properties of different types of photochromatic glass and their effects on cabin heat load. Various proposals involving solar-coated glass, including absorptive and reflective types as well as combinations of these types are examined. Digital simulations are conducted to identify the most suitable alternatives for glass and their combinations.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In this study, a combination of the Lattice-Boltzmann (LBM) based Power FLOW solver and the Finite Element based solver is utilized to simulate long transient soak and cool down processes. Furthermore, human thermal physiology is incorporated into the model to account for subjective evaluations of the in-cabin thermal environment. The Berkeley Comfort Model library, available in software, is employed for this purpose. This model addresses vasodilation and vasoconstriction effects based on external ambient conditions, as well as the influence of clothing and passenger metabolic rate. Digital simulations indicate that solar-coated reflecting-type glasses exhibit promising results.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The mentioned glass is installed in vehicles, and various trials are conducted under different conditions, including highway cycles, city cycles, and range trials, in both moderate and severe ambient conditions. Temperatures inside the cabin, at the grill level, and at most of touch points including glass surface are recorded for trials. The rate of rise of temperature during soaking reduced by ~15-18 % at cabin level and by ~32-35 % on touchpoints. In the vehicle-level test results, it is observed that touch point temperatures decrease by ~11-12°C, and air conditioning power consumption reduced by ~9-13%.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The purpose of the Air Generation System is to provide a constant supply of conditioned fresh air to meet the necessary oxygen availability and to prevent CO2 concentrations for the occupants in an aircraft. The engine bleed energy or electrical load energy consumed towards this circumstance accounts to be approximately 5% of total fuel burn and in turn, contributes to the global emissions of greenhouse gases.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper studies the improvement areas of the present conventional system such as fuel burn consumption associated with an aircraft ECS depending on the amount of bleed, ram air usage and electric power consumption. Improved systems for sustainability and hybridization in environmental control systems are desirable in aircraft.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper explains how a new design of the sustainable hybrid module assists the conventional system, by using a proposed modular MPBR. The MPBR system generates oxygen-enriched air, which is mixed with the traditional fresh air generated from conventional air generation systems.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">MPBR system revitalizes the existing air and establishes more air recirculation when compared to a conventional system. It will reduce the demand for fresh air from the engine bleed in case of engine bleed aircraft or reduce the electrical load in case of more electric aircraft, which hereby improves engine efficiency.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The proposed system can also be used for redundant life support purposes during an emergency.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">VOCs related to fuel consumption, maintenance, and global emissions of greenhouse gases can be addressed with the proposed solution. It applies to most of the aircraft variants and enhances sustainability, hybridization, reliability, and cost-effective features which would be of value and interest in a business case for the Suppliers, Manufacturers, and Customers side.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The increase of the electrical power required by current vehicles suggests the need to evaluate its impact on fuel consumption, emissions and performances.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Moreover, due to the growing amount of cars equipped with Air Conditioning System, a deep knowledge on how these additional loads influence vehicle performances is required.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Often, the mechanical power requested by electrical and AC systems is comparable to the mechanical power necessary to move the vehicle (or sometimes even higher) and this happens mainly during urban driving cycles.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"><i>Drivetrain 3.0</i> is an integrated simulation model for vehicle energetic evaluation and management; fuel consumption and performances on a generic speed vs time driving cycle are dynamically evaluated as a function of electrical power loads and their possible management strategies.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Other additional mechanical loads (i.e. climate compressor) and the related transmission efficiency could also be taken into account.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Furthermore, <i>Drivetrain 3.0</i> can calculate the fuel consumption as a function of the state of charge (SOC) of the battery and the engine idle rpm boost (depending on the energy management strategies), in order to guarantee the electrical balance.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The simulation model enables the evaluation of the effects of Start&Stop strategy on fuel consumption, taking into account the electrical power consumption when the engine is switched off.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Traditional automotive seat development has relied on a series of physical prototypes that are evaluated and refined in an iterative fashion. Costs are managed by sharing prototypes across multiple attributes. To further manage costs, many OEMs and Tier 1s have, over the past decade, started to investigate various levels of virtual prototyping. The change, which represents a dramatic paradigm shift, has been slow to materialize since virtual prototyping has not significantly reduced the required number of physical prototypes. This is related to the fact virtual seat prototyping efforts have been focused on only selected seat attributes - safety / occupant positioning and mechanical comfort are two examples. This requires that physical prototypes still be built for seat attributes like craftsmanship, durability, and thermal comfort. While focusing on craftsmanship and occupant positioning / safety (two attributes that are not typically bundled), this paper introduces the notion of chaining simulations and how this has the potential to 1/ improve the fidelity of the simulated results and 2/ eliminate physical prototypes entirely.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Vibration testing is an essential component of automotive product development, ensuring that components such as engines, transmissions, and electronic systems perform reliably under various operating conditions. The adoption of electronics in the automotive industry, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s, marked a shift in vibration testing approaches, moving from primarily low-frequency tests to methods that could address high-frequency vibrations as well. This evolution highlights the need for effective vibration fixture designs that can simulate real-world conditions, enabling manufacturers to detect potential weaknesses before products are integrated into vehicles. A key aspect of vibration testing is the identification of resonant frequencies within components. The coupled mass-spring-damper system, for example, can exhibit multiple resonances characterized by a Bode Diagram, where the Q factor technique is utilized to assess damping levels. Accurate vibration analysis can be achieved through various methodologies, including modal analysis and frequency response calculations, which help engineers understand how components will behave under different stimulus.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Furthermore, the use of advanced analytical tools, such as Finite Element Analysis (FEA) has become increasingly important in the automotive industry. These modern approaches allow for more precise and efficient vibration analysis, providing deeper insights into potential issues and enhancing overall product reliability.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">By adhering to industry standards such as International Organization for Standardization standard i.e. (ISO) 16750-3, Society of Automotive Engineers standard i.e. (SAE) J1455, and Military standard (MIL-STD)-810G, manufacturers can ensure their products meet rigorous safety and durability requirements, ultimately leading to reduced warranty claims and increased customer satisfaction.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Utilizing FEA allows for virtual prototyping, which reduces the reliance on physical prototypes traditionally used to test and refine designs. This approach not only shortens the design-to-production cycle but also allows for comprehensive testing and optimization, ultimately resulting in a more efficient development process and lower costs associated with prototype creation.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The design process for vibration fixtures involves a cyclical approach where simulations guide modifications. By continuously analysing and adjusting designs based on performance data, engineers can refine fixtures to meet specific criteria such as cost efficiency, structural performance, and overall functionality. This iterative nature of design helps in exploring multiple configurations and ensuring that the final product achieves all desired performance targets within the constraints of the given package space.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper describes the concept of Ecotechnical System (ETS) based on the analysis of mass, power and data flow exchange within a biocenosis and between a biocenosis and technical systems that support life and activity of any biological entity in isolated environment of space vehicle. A biocenosis is considered to be a gathering of live organisms (generally people, animals, plants and micro-organisms) in an artificial habitat of the isolated environment.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">An Ecotechnical System is defined and it is shown that the given concept brings together different life support systems based on physical-chemical and biological means of regeneration of crew metabolic products.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The existing limitations to the ETS development are reviewed in the paper in respect to limited volumes of space vehicles based on the vehicle characteristics and particular space program tasks.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Three step analysis approach proposed for ETS effectiveness evaluation. An Effectiveness model is proposed for each stage using exergy as a mean for accounting for system benefit. This model is intended to support preliminary, intermediate and final stages of integrated system design. The model includes the quantitative and qualitative effectiveness metrics that describe properties of biocenoses as well as technical apparatus.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A look back at some of the failures of space shots shows that often the problems, whose solutions appear simple and obvious, have caused the majority of difficulties. Since experience has shown that these difficulties can generally be related to the packaging aspects, considerable emphasis is placed in this writing on packaging design and manufacturing techniques. While circuit applications have, to the most part, incorporated more standard approaches, it is quite often the package design which gives one a competitive advantage. It is for this reason that the package design considerations could not be covered in as much detail as one would have liked. The major point made here is that proper packaging design has actually a greater effect on reliability than the more theoretical aspect of a reliability program, and that power consumption, weight, size, and reliability must be considered jointly as design parameters.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The welding process and welding controls are discussed in detail as part of the packaging scheme. Here, the importance of allowing enough time for preparation of weld schedules is perhaps the major area of emphasis. With respect to the formulation of encapsulated functional units, the importance of thermo-considerations, repair and maintainability are covered.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In addition, a testing program for design evaluation of space equipment is discussed. It is indicated that present programs do not provide for demonstration of reliability to a meaningful statistical confidence and that other means have to be found to evaluate the design and manufacturing effectiveness to operational conditions. The disciplines discussed here describe such a testing program as seen by a subcontractor responsible for equipments and not systems. In this connection, it is pointed out that, in effect, testing disciplines are restrained by the testing program of the system contractor.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Finally, the effect of scheduling on the implementation of a reliability program is covered, emphasizing the detrimental effects on reliability if other tasks are improperly scheduled or if the schedule is not kept.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The present paper outlines the selection and numerical modeling of a high performance and efficient blower motor fitted in an automotive Heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system. In today’s scenario blower motor is present in almost every car whether fitted with AC system or only blower system. The selection of a blower motor is very important in terms of delivering right amount of airflow with minimum consumption of electric power. As the power consumption goes up it may impacts in indirect green house gas (GHG) emission from a vehicle. While it does so e.g. fulfills HVACs’ airflow need, it generates some amount of heat which is very detrimental for its life and overall performance as well. Also the generated heat may lead to increase in temperature of the main stream air flow causing reduction in the cabin cooling and eventually hampers the comfort level.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The present study describes the methodology of selecting an automotive blower motor and its thermal modeling by using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). It involved the two different alternative methods of selecting the motor with the help of motor characteristics, fan characteristics and system resistance. The later method was adopted in selecting the motor in current study while the system resistance was evaluated numerically. Motor torque was estimated and electric power consumption was derived. Further to this the motor was modeled in CFD in detailed with its internal components like brush, commutator, armature etc. and then airflow and thermal analysis were carried out by conjugate heat transfer. Heat generated by the motor was modeled by source term. A detailed investigation in terms of airflow and temperature distribution was carried out to figure out the motor temperature rise. The simulation results was validated with that of experimental results and found a good correlation. Thus a methodology is developed with which designer can select and package the motor in order to have minimum power consumption and maximum life.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">With an objective of improving the range as well as other safety and comfort aspects, thermal management becomes increasingly important in the development of electrified vehicles both at the component as well as system level. The considerable increase in complexity of the thermal management system and its tighter interactions with the complete vehicle is driving an increasing trend towards system simulation compared to expensive testing.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">At the system level, different sub-systems interact with each other at varying extents. An example of one such strong interaction is between the coolant and AC circuits using battery chillers. Thermal management system simulation models must be capable of simulating such interactive systems.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">At the component level, ensuring the efficacy of the several components used in these intricately linked systems becomes increasingly important. An accurate prediction of temperature distribution inside the battery pack is essential to avoid damaging situations such as thermal runaway. An integrated approach of 1D-flow inside the cooling plates combined with 3D-thermal analysis of battery cells and cooling plates in GT-SUITE is described in this study.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Also, a new predictive electrochemical and thermal battery models to analyze and optimize both component and system level behavior is described. This allows selection of cell chemistry and design in addition to providing heat rejection values for design of the cooling system. Aging predictions at both the cycle and calendar time scales are described that consider effects of varying environmental and operating conditions.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">After the e-powertrain, the HVAC compressor is the largest consumer of electrical energy. For optimizing compressor power consumption without compromising on human thermal comfort attention is focused on localized cooling inside the cabin. This paper outlines an integrated co-simulation approach, that allows an investigation of the trade-off between passenger comfort and driving range, or to develop smart controls of the HVAC system.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A thermal/structural analysis of the Module to Trass System (MTS) of the Space Station Freedom (SSF) was performed. Its objective was to find the temperature distributions and temperature gradients in the structure in order to evaluate thermal stresses and deflections in the truss members caused by solar loads and by shadowing of the truss members by other segments of the Space Station, as it moves around the orbit. Temperatures in the truss components depend on the position and orientation of the Space Station in the orbit with respect to the Sun and Earth.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Because of the large number of surfaces, thermal-structural analysis of a truss structure typically requires a large amount of effort and computer resources. In order to reduce this, a technique of thermal/structural analysis was developed and applied. A SINDA thermal finite difference model and a TRASYS radiation interchange model of the truss were generated automatically from a NASTRAN finite element structural model. The entire process of model development, analysis and thermal/structural data transfer was automated, minimizing analysis time as well as possibility of errors. The primary purpose of the MTS analysis was to develop and demonstrate this technique.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The thermal analysis was performed for two extreme scenarios, corresponding to two values of solar beta angle. The temperature distribution at one orbital point was chosen to perform the NASTRAN structural finite element analysis and to illustrate how to determine the thermal stresses and deflections.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Modern battery management systems, as part of Battery Digital Twin, include cloud-based predictive analytics algorithms. These algorithms predicts critical parameters like Thermal runaway events, state of health (SOH), state of charge (SOC), remaining useful life (RUL), etc. However, relying only on cloud-based computations adds significant latency to time-sensitive procedures such as thermal runaway monitoring. This is a very critical and safety function and delay is not acceptable, but automobiles operate in various areas throughout the intended path of travel, internet connectivity varies, resulting in a delay in data delivery to the cloud and similarly delay in return of the detected warning to the driver back in the vehicle.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">As a result, the inherent lag in data transfer between the cloud and vehicles challenges the present deployment of cloud-based real-time monitoring solutions. This study proposes application of Federated Learning and applying to a thermal runaway model in low-cost microcontroller as a strategy to reduce transmission and processing costs and delays. Furthermore, this will ensure safety assured, rapid and efficient client experience, and other long term, history and huge data based algorithms running in cloud, giving OEMs a competitive advantage in the digital technology arena.</div></div>