Convolutional neural network models with low spatial variability hamper the transfer learning process

This study leveraged Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) models to estimate canopy height in Southeast Australian forests before and after the 2019–2020 bushfire event, using inputs from Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, spectral indices, and terrain features and GEDI canopy height (rh99) as target variables. Our research consisted of three primary objectives: (1) an evaluation of GEDI rh99 canopy height in relation to an nDSM derived from airborne LiDAR, (2) the development of two CNN models for pre- and post-fire scenarios, and (3) utilizing the trained CNN models to generate pre- and post-fire canopy height maps and canopy height change maps across the continuous landscape. GEDI rh99 accuracy analysis revealed R 2 = 0.85, RMSE = 7.25 m and nRMSE = 0.23 for pre-fire GEDI and R 2 = 0.78, RMSE = 10.1 m and nRMSE = 0.3 for post-fire GEDI. The pre-fire CNN model achieved R 2 = 0.75, RMSE = 7.29 m and nRMSE = 0.22, and post-fire CNN model achieved R 2 = 0.62, RMSE = 11.67 m, and nRMSE = 0.34 when validated against nDSM. Bias analysis was conducted, revealing that GEDI rh99 underestimated nDSM across all canopy height ranges, and slope has no significant impact on GEDI accuracy. Notably, post-fire GEDI rh99 exhibited significant underestimation in high to extreme fire severity. The CNN models’ prediction displayed overestimation in short forests < 20 m and increasing underestimation in taller forests > 20 m and underestimation in high and extreme fire severity. Subsequent investigation indicated that canopy layer thinning in high fire severity conditions resulted in weak GEDI waveform signals and consequent bias. Additionally, the GEDI rh99 bias was propagated to the CNN models, together with insensitivity of spectral band values to canopy height in dense and burnt forests potentially contributed to models’ bias. Finally, we demonstrated CNN models’ ability to monitor forest recovery by generating canopy height maps spanning East Gippsland from 2019 to 2023.

Understanding the learning mechanism of convolutional neural networks in spectral analysis

Automatic prediction of citrus fruit diseases requires the selection of a suitable classification model among various Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) models. The CNN models are the most effective for image classification. However, more than one CNN model occasionally performs closer to each other. Choosing the best classification model requires considerable effort in this situation. In this study, 17 CNN models were used for citrus fruit disease identification. Citrus fruit diseases include anthracnose, blackspot, canker, scab, and healthy. In this research, the performance of CNN models was analysed, and a two-phase statistical analysis was carried out to determine which CNN model provided the most accurate predictions of citrus crop disease. The 17 CNN models used were AlexNet, Darknet, Densenet, efficientnet, nasnetlarge, googlenet, inceptionresnetv2, inceptionv3, mobilenetv2, nasnetmobile, Xception, squeezenet, resnet18, resnet50, resnet101, vgg16, and vgg19. The two-phase statistical analysis was Duncan's multiple range test, followed by the Wilcoxon signed-rank test is the second one. Again, in order to do a statistical analysis, nine different indicators, including “accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, precision, FPR, F1 Score, MCC, Kappa, and computing time”, were taken into consideration. After the execution of 17 CNN models and twophase statistical analysis, it was revealed that resnet101 is superior among CNN models for citrus fruit disease prediction.

To better understand and improve the prediction of the seasonal surface temperature (TS) across the United States, we employed convolutional neural network (CNN) models trained on the Community Earth System Model Version 2 Large Ensemble (CESM2 LENS). We used lagged sea surface temperatures (SST) over the tropical Pacific region, containing the information of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), as input for the CNN models. ENSO is the principal driver of variability in seasonal US surface temperatures (TSUS) and employing CNN models allows for spatiotemporal aspects of ENSO to be analyzed to make seasonal TSUS predictions. For predicting TSUS, the CNN models exhibited significantly improved skill over standard statistical multilinear regression (MLR) models and dynamical forecasts across most regions in the US, for lead times ranging from 1 to 6 months. Furthermore, we employed the CNN models to predict seasonal TSUS during extreme ENSO events. For these events, the CNN models outperformed the MLR models in predicting the effects on seasonal TSUS, suggesting that the CNN models are able to capture the ENSO‐TSUS teleconnection more effectively. Results from a heatmap analysis demonstrate that the CNN models utilize spatial features of ENSO rather than solely the magnitude of the ENSO events, indicating that the improved skill of seasonal TSUS is due to analyzing spatial variation in ENSO events. The proposed CNN model demonstrates a promising improvement in prediction skill compared to existing methods, suggesting a potential path forward for enhancing TSUS forecast skill from subseasonal to seasonal timescales.

The main goal of this research was to accurately diagnose diseases in pepper plants using convolutional neural network (CNN) models and visual parameters features. Thus, we aimed to build a computing system that can utilise visual cues to identify plant diseases with almost 100% reliability. A total of 2,200 images were trained and tested on a dataset, which was divided into healthy leaves and those with bacterial ailments. The images were preprocessed, resized to 300x300 pixels, and then segmented to extract the relevant traits from them. This CNN model, in a word, is accurate because it detects diseases with 99.65% accuracy. If we want to speak of a high accuracy rate, that's the CNN model. It learns to identify the intricate patterns and features in pepper plants that are associated with diseases. CNN can make revolutionary changes to the identification of plant diseases and help prevent crop damage through timely treatments. Automatic identification of the disease makes life easier for both agriculturists and scientists. The results underscore the importance of image preprocessing, segmentation, and feature extraction in improving the ability of CNN models to locate diseases. Additionally, the performance of the CNN model was compared with other machine learning models such as KNN, Decision Tree, ANN, and Random Forest. It was found that the developed CNN model can predict the response with greater accuracy than the others. Modern high-tech precision farming systems might utilise proposed CNN models for plant disease diagnosis.

Rice is the staple food in Bangladesh. Every year many crops are lost because of the disease of the rice plant. Our farmers are facing a great loss every year as well as rice productivity is declining. Some diseased and healthy leaf images of rice plants have been collected. The images have been classified into four classes. The classes are Brown Spot, Hispa, Leaf Blast diseased leaves, and Healthy leaves, usually known as Oryza Saiva diseases of rice. Deep learning is very common and popular to analyze and make predictions from these kind of image data. In this research, the CNN (Convolutional Neural Network) models have been used to predict the classes. Among various CNN models, VGG16, MobileNet, ResNet50, and DenseNet121 pre-trained models have been applied. Among those pre-trained models, the highest accuracy 95.3% has been found from the VGG16 model. In addition, an Android mobile app has been developed using the highest performant VGG16 trained model. Using this mobile app, farmers will be able to upload a photo and predict the disease of that rice plant or not in a convenient way.

Among the many deep learning methods, the convolutional neural network (CNN) model has an excellent performance in image recognition. Research on identifying and classifying image datasets using CNN is ongoing. Animal species recognition and classification with CNN is expected to be helpful for various applications. However, sophisticated feature recognition is essential to classify quasi-species with similar features, such as the quasi-species of parrots that have a high color similarity. The purpose of this study is to develop a vision-based mobile application to classify endangered parrot species using an advanced CNN model based on transfer learning (some parrots have quite similar colors and shapes). We acquired the images in two ways: collecting them directly from the Seoul Grand Park Zoo and crawling them using the Google search. Subsequently, we have built advanced CNN models with transfer learning and trained them using the data. Next, we converted one of the fully trained models into a file for execution on mobile devices and created the Android package files. The accuracy was measured for each of the eight CNN models. The overall accuracy for the camera of the mobile device was 94.125%. For certain species, the accuracy of recognition was 100%, with the required time of only 455 ms. Our approach helps to recognize the species in real time using the camera of the mobile device. Applications will be helpful for the prevention of smuggling of endangered species in the customs clearance area.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Outdoor ultrafine particles (UFP; 100 nm) and black carbon (BC) vary greatly within cities and may have adverse impacts on human health such as cardiovascular mortality and brain tumour incidence. Traditional regression methods for estimating spatial distributions of ambient air pollution depend on extensive, curated geospatial information system databases. This has resulted in a disparity wherein little is known about local air pollution in the data-sparse settings of low- and middle- income countries. We used a hybrid approach to develop new models to estimate within-city spatial variations in outdoor UFP and BC concentrations across Bucaramanga, Colombia. METHODS: We conducted a large-scale mobile monitoring campaign over twenty days in 2019. Land use regression (LUR) models were developed using land use parameters from curated and open-source databases. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) models were developed using Google Maps satellite view and street view images. Combined models were developed by combining predictions from the LUR and CNN models. After training in the training and validation sets, predictions were generated in the test set and compared to measured values. RESULTS:The combined UFP model (R2=0.54) outperformed the CNN (R2=0.47) and land use regression (LUR) models (R2=0.47) on their own. Similarly, the combined BC model also outperformed the CNN and LUR BC models (R2 = 0.51 vs 0.43 and 0.45 respectively). Spatial variations in model performance were more stable for the CNN and combined models compared to the LUR models suggesting that the combined approach may be less likely to contribute to differential exposure measurement error in epidemiological studies. CONCLUSIONS:Estimates from these models can then be applied to population-based cohorts in order to evaluate population health risks. Additionally, our findings demonstrated that satellite and street-level images can be combined with a traditional LUR modelling approach to improve predictions of within-city spatial variations in outdoor UFP and BC concentrations. KEYWORDS: Ultrafine particles, Black Carbon, Deep learning, Images, Land use regression

Purpose: Parkinson’s disease (PD) diagnosis algorithms based on Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping and image algorithms rely on SN labeling. However, the difference between SN labels from different experts (or segmentation algorithms) will have a negative impact on downstream diagnostic tasks, such as the decrease of the algorithm's accuracy or different diagnostic results for the same sample. In this article, we quantify the accuracy of the algorithm on different label sets, and then improve the Convolutional Neural Network Model to obtain a high-precision and high-robust diagnosis algorithm. Methods: The logistic regression model and convolutional neural network (CNN) model were first compared for classification between PD patients and healthy controls (HC), given different sets of substantia nigra (SN) labeling. Then, based on the CNN model with better performance, we further proposed a novel "Gated Pooling" operation and integrated it with deep learning to attain a joint framework for image segmentation and classification. Results: The experimental results show that, with different sets of SN labeling that mimic different experts, the CNN model can maintain the stable classification accuracy around 86.4%, while the conventional logistic regression model yields a large fluctuation ranging from 78.9% to 67.9%. Furthermore, the "Gated Pooling" operation after being integrated for joint image segmentation and classification can improve the diagnosis accuracy to 86.9% consistently, which is statistically better than the baseline. Conclusion: The CNN model, compared with the conventional logistic regression model using radiomics features, has better stability in PD diagnosis. Furthermore, the joint end-to-end CNN model is shown to be suitable for PD diagnosis from the perspectives of accuracy, stability, and convenience in actual use.

Pinhole corrosions on oil and gas pipelines are difficult to detect and size and, therefore, pose a significant challenge to the pipeline integrity management practice. This study develops two convolutional neural network (CNN) models to identify pinholes and predict the sizes and location of the pinhole corrosions according to the magnetic flux leakage signals generated using the magneto-static finite element analysis. Extensive three-dimensional parametric finite element analysis cases are generated to train and validate the two CNN models. Additionally, comprehensive algorithm analysis evaluates the model performance, providing insights into the practical application of CNN models in pipeline integrity management. The proposed classification CNN model is shown to be highly accurate in classifying pinholes and pinhole-in-general corrosion defects. The proposed regression CNN model is shown to be highly accurate in predicting the location of the pinhole and obtain a reasonably high accuracy in estimating the depth and diameter of the pinhole, even in the presence of measurement noises. This study indicates the effectiveness of employing deep learning algorithms to enhance the integrity management practice of corroded pipelines.

Excessive withdrawal of groundwater for agricultural irrigation can cause seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers. Such a case will in turn results in deterioration of irrigation water quality. Determination of irrigation water quality with traditional methods is a time-consuming and costly process. However, machine learning algorithms can be useful tools for modeling and estimating groundwater quality used for irrigation water purposes. In this study, TDS, PS, SAR, and Cl parameters of groundwater were estimated with models based on EC and pH variables. For this purpose, prediction performances of two different deep learning methods (convolutional neural network (CNN) and deep neural network (DNN)) and two different classical machine learning (Random Forest (RF) and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost)) methods were compared. In addition, predictive uncertainty of the models was determined by quantile regression (QR) analysis. Performance criteria and results of uncertainty analysis revealed that CNN (in testing phase, NSE = 0.95 for TDS, NSE = 0.96 for PS, NSE = 0.67 for SAR and NSE = 0.93 for CI) and DNN (in testing phase, NSE = 0.91 for TDS, NSE = 0.91 for PS, NSE = 0.57 for SAR and NSE = 0.94 for Cl) models had quite a close performance in estimation of TDS, PS, SAR, and Cl parameters and higher than the other two classical machine learning methods. As a result, the CNN model can be considered the best performing model in estimating all quality parameters due to the highest NSE and lowest RMSE values. In addition, the Taylor diagram showed that the values estimated using the CNN model had the highest correlation with the measured data. It was determined that the model with the lowest uncertainty based on the PICP statistics was DNN, followed by the CNN model. However, the CNN model has predicted outliers more accurately. Present findings proved that deep learning models could offer efficient tools for predicting irrigation water quality parameters.

Apple leaf diseases can cause significant crop failure and impact the economy of farmers and the agricultural industry. With the increasing demand for quality apples, it is important to develop effective and efficient solutions to detect apple plant diseases early. This research aims to develop an automated system that can identify diseases in apple plants based on leaf images using the Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model. This model was developed with the ResNet50V2 architecture to classify four leaf conditions: three types of common diseases and one healthy condition. This research applies the CNN model for leaf image processing and the Waterfall system development method. The stages start from needs analysis by collecting data to be processed by the cnn model, interface design of the classification system, program code implementation, and functionality testing using black-box testing. CNN model development includes the stages of collecting datasets sourced from Malang apple plantations as many as 150 images and Kaggle public datasets totalling 3,071 images, then image preprocessing, model development and training. Our research results produced an apple plant disease classification system by implementing the CNN model. Based on the results of testing the system and the model used, it shows that the CNN model applied in the system achieves a classification accuracy of 99.01%, and the functionality of the system built runs well.

The adoption of artificial intelligence in post-earthquake inspections and reconnaissance has received considerable attention in recent years, owing to its exponential increase in computation capabilities and inherent potential in addressing disadvantages associated with manual inspections. Herein, we present the effectiveness of automated deep learning in enhancing the assessment of damage caused by the 2017 Pohang earthquake. Six classical pre-trained convolutional neural network (CNN) models are implemented through transfer learning (TL) on a small dataset, comprising 1780 manually labeled images of structural damage. Feature extraction and fine-tuning TL methods are trained on the image datasets. The performances of various CNN models are compared on a testing image dataset. Results confirm that the MobileNet fine-tuned model offers the best performance. Therefore, the model is further developed as a web-based application for classifying earthquake damage. The severity of damage is quantified by assigning damage assessment values, derived using the CNN model and gradient-weighted class activation mapping. The web-based application can effectively and automatically classify structural damage resulting from earthquakes, rendering it suitable for decision making, such as in resource allocation, policy development, and emergency response.

A case study on computer-aided diagnosis of nonerosive reflux disease using deep learning techniques

The classification process is also used in artificial intelligence (AI), which is intelligence created by a computer, so that it can mimic actions like humans in general and can capture events that occur in the surrounding environment. Seeing the very high development of the international coffee trade, it can be concluded that if there is a type of coffee that has the best quality, it will be sought after by coffee importing countries. Batik is cloth that is painted using canting and liquid wax to form motifs or patterns that have high artistic value. Batik has a variety of unique and distinctive patterns that reflect the region where the batik motif originates. One area that has batik motifs in Indonesia is batik in the North Coastal Region of Java Island. In this area, various batiks are produced according to the characteristics of the area itself. Regarding information related to the introduction of types of batik motifs, perhaps it comes from people who have batik skills and batik craftsmen who best understand batik as a whole, while the general public does not really know about batik motifs. Because batik has different motifs and batik motifs in some areas have motifs that are almost uniform but not the same. One of the technologies that can be used is deep learning. The purpose of this study is to propose a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Transfer Learning (TL) model to be implemented in an intelligent system for the process of image classification of coffee bean types. The method used in this study is the PSOCNN transfer learning model VGG16 From the results of tests carried out on 2 models, namely the CNN model, the PSOCNN transfer learning model VGG16. it was found that the highest accuracy was obtained when classifying batik motives images using the PSOCNN-transfer learning model VGG16, which was 83%. The level of accuracy that is increased when compared to the usual CNN model indicates that the use of transfer learning has a good effect on the level of accuracy obtained. Although an increase of 6% is significant, but with this increase it opens up opportunities to increase even higher by using other transfer learning models