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The rising number of adult learners interested in online distance education, coupled with the increasing competition between educational institutions have forced universities to identify alternative options for course offerings, such as online or blended learning. Instructor immediacy (the measure of the psychological distance which an instructor puts between himself and his students) received significant attention in the communication literature and several studies reported that instructor verbal and nonverbal immediacy behaviors are associated with learning outcomes, satisfaction, and motivation. However, few researchers have examined instructor immediacy in distance learning settings. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of instructor immediacy behaviors on student perception of instructor immediacy and social presence (the degree to which a person is perceived as “real” in mediated communication) in two online, computer conferencing environments: (a) video and audio with text chat and (b) audio with text chat. Further, this study sought to identify the relationship between perceived instructor immediacy and perceived social presence within the context of the different computer conferencing environments. An ancillary purpose was to determine the effect of immediacy behaviors on learning outcomes as indicated by posttest scores and identify the relationship between perceived instructor immediacy and posttest scores. The study employed a randomized two-factor design to test the effects of instructor immediacy behaviors (high vs. low) and delivery modality (audio vs. video) on student perception of instructor immediacy, perception of social presence, and learning outcomes. Specifically, 433 students enrolled in two sections of an undergraduate psychology course at San Diego State University were randomly assigned to one of four groups. Each group viewed a different version of a scripted and recorded 20-minute online lesson on current perspectives in psychology. Students who viewed the high-immediacy sessions indicated significantly higher perception of instructor immediacy and social presence than students who viewed the low-immediacy sessions. In addition, students who viewed the high-immediacy video session indicated the highest perception of instructor immediacy and social presence. The results also showed that there was a significant difference in learning outcomes as indicated by immediate posttest scores between students in the high-immediacy audio group and the low-immediacy video group. However, no significant difference was found between the four groups on the learning outcomes as indicated by their scores on the delayed posttest. The correlation analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between perceived instructor immediacy and perceived instructor social presence. Further, a regression analysis revealed that instructor

Social presence in a blended learning involves construction of learning through student sharing, interaction and support thus improving students’ motivation, and learning. This study examines students’ perceptions of social presence (SP) in blended learning courses (BL) in a medical college in Tanzania. Three research questions are addressed: are there significant differences in the reported scores of social presences among students based on gender, age and year of study? How is social presence encouraged in the BL medical courses? How is social presence associated with students’ learning in the BL medical courses? Following a mixed method, Social Presence Scale and Focus Group Discussion were in data collection. BL in these courses included face-to- face lectures, student online and face-to-face group discussions, laboratory practices, team-based learning (TBL), and online exams. The study involved 144 medical students. Survey results showed no significant differences in the reported scores of social presences based on their characteristics. However, affective expression and open communication were more valued than group cohesion elements of SP. Qualitative results show that social presence was encouraged through provision of group assignments, teacher online activities, and students’ group discussions. Through social presence and interaction, students learnt various concepts, examination questions in both online and in face-to-face discussions. The conclusion is that students’ characteristics are not crucial, however, group discussion and social presence influence their learning.

Student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence and satisfaction in a blended learning environment: Relationships and critical factors

This study investigates how conversational artificial intelligence (CAI) agents’ response delay and context awareness influence users’ perceptions of social presence, empathy, and responsiveness, and engagement, in the context of stress management and wellness for college students. Grounded in social response theory and social presence theory, this research focuses on the conceptual mechanisms through which these design features shape human-like interactions in CAI. Response delay refers to the intentional pause between a user’s input and the agent’s reply. Social response theory suggests that pauses reflect “thoughtfulness,” which aligns with human expectations of social interaction and thus foster trust and engagement. A short delay (e.g., 2 seconds, accompanied by a visual indicator) may signal CAI’s humanlike cognitive effort and deliberation, enhancing users’ perceptions of social presence or sense of being with an intelligent, socially engaging entity. Context awareness refers to CAI’s ability to recall and integrate conversational history. A context-aware CAI references prior user interactions, ensuring coherence, personalization, and emotional resonance in its interaction with users. Social presence theory suggests that the ability to build on prior interactions enhances social presence. The increased social presence through CAI’s thoughtful delay and personalized responses based on context awareness may create a relationally engaging interaction, fostering user engagement with the CAI. This study will employ a 2 (response delay: yes vs. no) × 2 (context awareness: aware vs. unaware) between-subjects experiment. Four versions of CAI, as a virtual wellness counselor for college students, will be designed to manipulate the four experimental conditions, and their impacts on users’ social presence, empathy and responsiveness perceptions, as well as engagement will be examined. Findings will provide theoretical and practical insights into optimizing CAI design for human-like interactions in wellness contexts.

Research in education confirmed that students engage in learning when they feel connected with others and when they play an active role in their learning process. Therefore; social presence (SP) considered as an important component of effective learning in both face-face and online learning environment. Therefore, this study intended to investigate students’ perception about SP when using Web 2.0 tool for learning-based interaction and the difference in their perception based on gender and number of the semesters of the study. The participants of this study were 71 postgraduate students in one of the Malaysian public universities. The quantitative methods of data collection and data analysis were used in this study. Therefore, the researcher employed survey method using Online Social Presence Questionnaire (OSPQ) to collect the data. The data were analyzed using SPSS software to find mean, standard deviation of students’ perception of their social presence while using Web 2.0 tool for learning-based interaction. Independent sample t-test was used to find the difference in students perception based on their gender. Moreover, One-Way ANOVA was used to find the difference in students’ SP perception based on their semester of the study. The findings of this study showed that students expressed high perception about their social presence on Web 2.0 tool. Nonetheless, male students perceived higher social presence on Web 2.0 tool than female students. However, there were not significant differences in students’ perception of social presence neither based on the gender difference nor on the number of the semester of the study.

The capacity to foster interpersonal interactions in massive open online courses (MOOCs) has frequently been contested, particularly when learner interactions are limited to MOOC forums. The establishment of social presence—a perceived sense of somebody being present and “real”—is among the strategies to tackle the challenges of online learning and could be applied in MOOCs. Thus far, social presence in MOOCs has been under-researched. Studies that previously examined social presence in MOOCs did not account for the peculiar nature of open online learning. In contrast to the existing work, this study seeks to understand how learners perceive social presence, and the different nuances of social presence in diverse MOOC populations. In particular, we compare perceptions of social presence across the groups of learners with different patterns of forum participation in three edX MOOCs. The findings reveal substantial differences in how learners with varying forum activity perceive social presence. Perceptions of social presence also differed in courses with the varying volume of forum interaction and duration. Finally, learners with sustained forum activity generally reported higher social presence scores that included low affectivity and strong group cohesion perceptions. With this in mind, this study is significant because of the insights into brings to the current body of knowledge around social presence in MOOCs. The study’s findings also raise questions about the effectiveness of transferring existing socio-constructivist constructs into the MOOC contexts.

Including others in a playful activity fundamentally changes the concept of play into social play. This thesis focuses on social play in digital gaming. Previous studies have revealed the crucial part of social interaction in play, as the intrinsic need to belong seems to be the core motivation for engaging in such activities. Besides interacting with the game and focusing on the game content, gamers are confronted with emotions, behaviours, opinions and performances of others that can easily be perceived when playing side by side (co-located co-play). However, the widespread penetration of the Internet also allows for social play without the restriction of co-players having to be in the same room (mediated co-play). In online co-play settings a smaller amount of social information can be exchanged compared to co-located co-play. These settings therefore differ in the way gamers can interact with each other, which has an influence on how digital gaming is experienced. Focus groups, contextual inquiries, and four experimental studies were employed to uncover which aspects of social play in digital gaming make mediated and co-located co-play feel different. The first study was conducted to explore the motivations of gamers to physically meet others to play digital games, compared to meeting them online. Based on interpersonal communications, focus groups and contextual inquiries, findings revealed that the appeal of co-located above online co-play results from the sociable, warm, sensitive, personal and intimate interactions that are possible when playing side-byside. Furthermore, co-located co-play offers the possibility to experience social fun before and after game play, which often is not afforded in online co-play. The first lab experiment was conducted to empirically demonstrate to what extent player experience is influenced by the way co-players are present; e.g. as a virtual (human controlled), mediated or co-located co-player. Results on self-reports indicated that playing sidebyside significantly adds to the enjoyment and involvement in games compared to playing against a virtual (i.e. computer controlled) or distant co-player. These results could be explained by introducing the concept of social presence, which is defined as the feeling of being together with another individual. Results demonstrated that social presence mediated the enjoyment in social play. In the second and third lab experiment the possibilities for verbal and non-verbal interaction were manipulated between coplayers in co-located co-play. One experiment investigated this for competitive play; a the other for collaborative play. Self-reports showed that interactions through auditory cues positively influenced player experience. Interestingly, the presence of visual cues of one’s co-player had no significant influence on play. Observation data of players confirmed that audio cues (e.g., talking, laughing) were far more often used than visual cues (e.g., eye contact, making gestures); visual cues were only used before and after play. Furthermore, we demonstrated that social presence – due to interaction by audio cues – mediates the enjoyment in social play. A final lab experiment was conducted to investigate the importance of the connection between players through the game for our results in the previous chapters. In this experiment players were colocated, but not always played together and/or were not always able to see each other’s scores. Results showed that a subjective shared experience increases the strength of the social connection between players, and positively affects feelings of social presence, enjoyment and involvement. Similar to the previous findings, social presence mediated the increase in feelings of enjoyment and involvement. In sum, our set of studies offered empirical support for when, why and how social interaction influences players’ experience in co-play settings. Furthermore, the results indicate the importance of social presence as a mediating factor of enjoyment and involvement in social play. This provides new theoretical insights for communication experiences in other media, and social presence in general. Furthermore, findings may be useful to game designers who may want to enhance players’ experiences in during digital play.

The distance education literature is lacking studies investigating the construct of social presence, the value placed on it by online learners, and whether its existence in text-based environments is necessary for learning, satisfaction, and contributing to course retention. The purpose of this study was to explore learner perceptions and experiences of the learning process within the Web-based online learning medium in terms of social presence. More specifically, it examines the relationship among learners' perceptions of social presence in asynchronous online courses and how it relates to satisfaction with learning, whether course activities perceived as having high levels of social presence also have high levels of satisfaction and quality of learning, and whether perceptions of social presence and satisfaction with learning affects their likelihood of enrolling in future online courses. The research design of this study utilized an online survey administered to 280 students enrolled in online courses of nine disciplines; both undergraduate- and graduate- level at a large urban university. Open-ended questions from the online survey were examined as well to help inform and support the findings from the quantitative data. Data were analyzed using correlations, ANOVAs, and hierarchical regression analysis. The findings demonstrated that students' perceived social presence was statistically, significantly, and positively related to their overall perceived satisfaction with learning in online courses. Furthermore, students' perceived social presence was statistically, significantly, and positively related to their perception of quality of and satisfaction with learning for each of the five course activities examined in this study. The hierarchical regression analysis suggested that perceived social presence contributed substantially more incremental variance to the decision to enroll again in an online course than the satisfaction with learning variable. Overall, the theoretical model including social presence and satisfaction with learning explained 18 percent of the variance in the dependent variable. The potential implications for theory and practice for online course designers and instructors are provided.

This chapter reports on the results of a study that explored doctoral learners' perceptions of social presence in online dissertation courses. Seven doctoral graduates were interviewed to understand how social presence functions in online dissertation courses, whether social presence influences their dissertation completion, and how technological tools help improve social presence in the dissertation courses. The results of this study indicate that social presence plays an important role in online dissertation courses. Students' course satisfaction and learning outcome were associated with the degree of social presence. The use of emoticons, emails, and phone calls in online dissertation courses increased students' sense of social presence. Students were more satisfied with instructors who interacted with them frequently and who provided detailed and constructive feedback in a timely manner. Recommendations for further research are included.

A personality-based emotional model for embodied conversational agents: Effects on perceived social presence and game experience of users

Objective: To assess airborne nicotine concentrations as an indicator of second-hand smoke (SHS) exposure in public places in both urban and rural areas of China. Design: Measurement of vapour-phase nicotine...

BackgroundWeb-based education is one of the leading learning pedagogies in health professions education. Students have access to a multitude of opinions, knowledge, and resources on Web, but communication among students in Web-based courses is complicated. Technology adds a filter that makes it difficult to decipher the emotions behind words or read nonverbal cues. This is a concern because students benefit more from Web-based classes when they have a high perception of social presence. To enhance social presence on Web, we planned to use video-based assignments (VBAs) that encourage students to interact with each other.ObjectiveThis case study examines the impact of VBAs on health professions students and their experiences with the technology. This study aims to provide information to the growing body of literature about strategies to develop social presence on Web.MethodsA total of 88 students from various nursing programs participated in the study. While the control group comprised 36 students who submitted only written-based assignments (WBAs), the experimental group of 52 students submitted VBAs besides WBAs. No enrolled student had previously participated in the course, and there were no repeaters in either of the groups. Both groups participated in a weekly survey comprising 4 open-ended questions and 3 Likert items on a scale of 1-5 (1=strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree). The social presence questionnaire assessed by the experimental group comprised 16 items and a 5-point Likert scale in which higher scores represented higher levels of social presence. While quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, qualitative responses were analyzed using content analysis.ResultsNo significant differences were noted between the groups regarding the program (F1,87=0.36, P=.54). Regarding students’ engagement, no statistically significant difference was observed between the 2 groups (t14=0.96, P=.35). However, the experimental group’s average score for engagement was slightly higher (4.29 [SD 0.11]) than that of the control group (4.21 [SD 0.14]). Comparison of the total number of responses to the weekly engagement survey revealed 88.0% (287/326) as either strongly agree or agree in the control group, whereas 93.1% (525/564) in the experimental group. No statistically significant difference was observed between VBAs and WBAs weeks (t6=1.40, P=.21) in the experimental group. Most students reported a positive experience using VBAs, but technical issues were barriers to embracing this new approach to learning.ConclusionsThis study reveals that social presence and engagement are positively associated with student learning and satisfaction in Web-based courses. Suggestions are offered to enhance social presence on Web that could generate better learning outcomes and students’ experiences.

소셜 네트워크 서비스가 빠르게 확산되면서, 소셜 네트워크 게임 등 소셜 네트워크 서비스를 활용한 다양한 부가 서비스가 각광을 받고 있다. 소셜 네트워크 게임이 범국민적 인기를 끌고 있으나, 이러한 인기의 원인에 대한 연구는 미미한 상황이다. 본 연구에서는 사회적 존재감 이론과 매체 풍요도 이론 등 선행 연구들을 바탕으로 소셜 네트워크 게임의 요소를 각각 자기표시, 상호 식별의 두 가지 커뮤니티 요소와 매체의 생생함, 매체와의 상호작용성의 두 가지 매체 특성으로 구분하고 이들이 인지된 즐거움 등 소셜 네트워크 게임 이용 경험 및 지속 이용 의도, 지불 의도 및 충성도 등 행동 의도에 어떠한 영향을 미치는 지 실증적으로 검증하였다. 현재 소셜 네트워크 게임을 이용하고 있는 이용자들에 대한 설문조사를 통해 총 243개의 자료를 수집하였으며, PLS 알고리즘을 이용하여 분석을 진행하였다. 그 결과, 커뮤니티 요소는 사회적 존재감을 통해 인지된 즐거움에 유의한 영향을 미치며, 매체 특성 또한 인지된 즐거움에 유의한 영향을 미치는 것으로 조사되었다, 이렇게 증가된 인지된 즐거움은 지속 사용 의도, 지불 의도 및 충성도 등 소셜 네트워크 게임 이용자의 행동 의도에 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구의 결과는 소셜 네트워크 게임의 인기의 원인을 살펴본 선도적인 연구일 뿐 아니라, 각 구성 요소를 인식하고 효과를 실증적으로 살펴봄으로써 소셜 네트워크 게임 디자인이라는 실무적인 측면에서 도움을 줄 수 있을 것으로 기대한다. The deployment of social network service(SNS) makes the social network game(SNG) as the new value added service of SNS be popular. But, a few study had identified the reason of this popularity and the elements of SNG. Based on the social presence theory and media richness theory, we had tried to identify three community artifacts (i.e. persistent labeling, self presentation and deep profiling) and two media characteristics(i.e. vividness and interactivity) as the SNG elements in this research. Then we had empirically validated the effect of these elements on the SNGexperience (i.e. social presence, perceived enjoyment) and behavioral intentions (i.e. Continuous usage intention, willingness to pay and loyalty) of the users. We conducted a survey to the actual SNG users. 243 data were collected and analyzed by PLS algorism. The results indicated that the community artifacts mediated by the social presence and media characteristics could significantly affect on the experiences and behavioral intentions. These findings could contribute to identify what element could be the reason of social network game popularity and could also contribute to design more attractive social network game in practice.

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study is to examine the impacts of transactive memory system (TMS) and interaction platforms in computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) on social presence perceptions and self-regulation skills of learners. Within the scope of the study, social presence perceptions and self-regulation skills of students in collaborative groups constructing knowledge in wiki, blog, podcast and Facebook platforms in CSCL processes were compared. The study is designed as a pretest and post-test control group study and was carried out with 97 university students. Social presence and self-regulation scales were administered as pretest in the study. At the end of process, social presence, self-regulation, transactive memory scales and semi-structured student opinion forms were administered as post-test. When the findings were examined, it was seen that interaction platforms and the TMS level of the group did not have a significant impact on social presence perception individually; yet common impact of these two variables was significant. When the impact of interaction platforms and the TMS on self-regulation skills was examined, it was found that whilst interaction platforms had a significant impact, the TMS alone and interaction platforms–TMS common impact were not significant.

Social presence theory was developed by Short et al. (The social psychology of telecommunications. Wiley, London, 1976) to explain the impact of different media such as text, audio, or video on interpersonal communication. They defined social presence as “the salience of the other person in the interaction,” which was interpreted as the degree to which the other person is perceived as physical “real” in the communication. Social presence theory was first applied by Gunawardena (Int J Educ Telecommun 1:147–166, 1995) for online educational contexts. Since then it has become an important construct for summarizing the effects of mediated communication on the social interaction and the group dynamics that happen in distributed collaborative learning groups. However, a robust scale for measuring perceptions of social presence is still lacking. Although Short, Williams, and Christie did measure social presence by using four semantic differential scales, they never validated this scale. Indeed, other social presence instruments have come to existence but none of these instruments tapped physical realness of others as the single trait of interest. Furthermore, questions may arise about the psychometric qualities of these instruments as they, at best, used exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses but did not account for the nonlinearity of rating scale steps and other issues. To fill this gap, the current research aimed at developing a robust social presence measure by using the Rasch measurement model as a rigid construct validation method. The findings of the Rasch analyses (fit of items and persons, unidimensionality, category probability curves) in Winsteps version 4.4.1 revealed two dimensions of social presence: Awareness of others and Proximity with others. The first was measured with 15 items while the latter was measured with 12 items. The psychometric quality of the Awareness 15-item set was good to excellent whereas the quality of the Proximity 12-item set was moderate to good. Future research is aimed to improve the psychometric qualities even more and also to determine whether the two dimensions are actually inconsequential (Linacre in Detecting multidimensionality in Rasch data using Winsteps Table 23, 2018b).