Cross-Layer Analysis of Error Control in Wireless Sensor Networks

Error control coding improves reliability and efficiency of wireless communication systems. This research delves into the latest advancements in error control coding schemes for wireless communication systems, with a specific focus on their application within the domain of Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs) such as Narrowband Internet of Things (NB-IoT) systems, LoRa energy-efficient hardware design, random access control systems, and wireless sensor networks. In the context of LPWANs, particularly NB-IoT systems, we investigate the adaptive coding and modulation (ACM) in NB-IoT systems, which adapts coding rates and modulation techniques to changing channel circumstances. Comprehensive analysis of the literature review shows that the proposed approaches are more energy efficient and less error-prone than fixed coding and modulation schemes. Using Cell Design Methodology (CDM), Single Error Correction (SEC) codes are optimized for energy efficiency. Power and energy efficiency have improved in standard CMOS and CDM logic systems. This impacts IoT devices, memory storage, and security systems. Next, Forward Error Correction (FEC) is examined for ALOHA-based random-access control systems wherein packet loss rate and spectral efficiency metrics are mathematically calculated. FEC is beneficial, especially when time and frequency synchronization diverge. Monte Carlo simulations studied in the literature shows that FEC improves satellite communication systems. This review establishes benefits of FEC, notably in satellite communications systems. In addition, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) error control techniques and network reliability and performance are examined along with Convolutional, Turbo, Low density parity check codes(LDPC), and Polar error correction coding (ECC) methods. We learn about their benefits, drawbacks, and implementation challenges by assessing their efficacy, efficiency, and applicability in wireless sensor networks (WSN) applications. This study further highlights advancements of energy-efficient error control coding when, integrated into network designs alongwith the trade-offs between efficacy and intricacy to help improve wireless communication networks. Finally, this study summarizes current error control coding approaches for wireless communication systems. We provide insights into improving reliability, energy conservation, and efficacy by examining ACM, CDM, FEC, and error correction coding (ECC) across varied domains including LPWAN and IoT technologies with earnest hope to facilitate researchers, engineers, and professionals working in the field of error control coding in wireless communication.

One of the major challenges in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) deployment is to decrease sensor node's energy consumption to prolong the lifetime of the finite-capacity batteries. Using multihop has been viewed as one of the main techniques to prolong operational lifetime in wireless sensor networks. In this paper we offer a study on transmission power control (TPC) in multihop WSNs using typical Telosb platform parameters, which is IEEE 802.15.4 standard compliant. We offer a new approach to test TPC in multihop networks at the physical layer and provide energy consumption performance results via simulation and numerical model in multihop WSNs. Our simulation and numerical model results illustrate that energy spent to send packets using short-range multihop path instead of single hop does not necessarily save energy as suggested by some of the earlier research.

A scheme for WSNs (wireless sensor networks) security is given by dividing sensing tetrahedron into clusters and using the symmetric polynomials in this paper.The sensing tetrahedron is divided into a number of small grids.All those sensor nodes, both ordinary sensor nodes and heterogeneous sensor nodes are distributed in the sensing tetrahedron.In a grid, all ordinary sensor nodes and heterogeneous sensor nodes establish their shared keys through using the symmetric polynomials.All the heterogeneous sensor nodes establish their shared keys through using the symmetric polynomials.At last, all sensor nodes establish their keys directly or indirectly in the whole sensing tetrahedron.Analysis and comparison demonstrate this scheme enhances the WSN security, has good network connectivity, saves node storage, reduces network computing load, and extends the network lifetime.

This paper evaluates energy level performance of error control strategies in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). More precisely Forward Error Correcting (FEC) and Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) technique are studied for a square grid WSN. ARQ scheme is compared with FEC scheme in terms of Packet Error Rate (PER), energy efficiency and total energy spent to communicate packetized data. The impact of node spatial density and packet lengths on energy efficiency and energy expenditure is discussed. Further an optimum FEC scheme with the maximal energy efficiency for a given node spatial density and packet size is evaluated. The impact of node spatial density and packet length on optimal error correcting capability is indicated. Energy efficiency for several error correcting capabilities and packet length is also evaluated.

Innovative Internet of Things (IoT) applications with strict performance and energy consumption requirements and where the agile collection of data is paramount are arising. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) represent a promising solution as they can be easily deployed to sense, process, and forward data. The large number of Sensor Nodes (SNs) composing a WSN are expected to be autonomous, with a node’s lifetime dictated by the battery’s size. As the form factor of the SN is critical in various use cases, minimizing energy consumption while ensuring availability becomes a priority. Moreover, energy harvesting techniques are increasingly considered as a viable solution for building an entirely green SN and prolonging its lifetime. In the process of building a SN and in the absence of a clear and well-rounded methodology, the designer can easily make unfounded and suboptimal decisions about the right hardware components, their configuration, and reliable data communication techniques, such as automatic repeat request (ARQ) and forward error correction (FEC). In this paper, a methodology to design, configure, and deploy a reliable ultra-low power WSNs is proposed. A comprehensive energy model and a realistic path-loss (PL) model of the sensor node are also established. Through estimations and field measurements it is proven that, following the proposed methodology, the designer can thoroughly explore the design space and the make most favorable decisions when choosing commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components, configuring the node, and deploying a reliable and energy-efficient WSN.

Heterogeneous network convergence and handover have become very hot in recent years. This paper proposed an efficient handover scheme in Multi-PAN Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). A number of edge nodes are set at the edge of each Personal Area Networks (PANs). A user equipment (UE), which has WSN and cellular network interface, acts as sensor node or mobile cluster head in WSN area. Thus, edge early warning can be acquired from edge nodes and neighbor channel information can be acquired with BS-assistance. Simulation results show that low transmission interrupted delay and low energy consumption can be achieved compared with conventional scheme in WSN.

Today, Forward Error Correcting (FEC) codes are mainly implemented in hardware, and many believe that their complexity prohibits their software implementation. This paper presents in detail how the performances of a software implementantion can be significantly improved. Different levels of optimization which are independent of the working environment are presented and discussed. The coding throughput of 100 Mbps on an UltraSparc 1 shows that FEC codes can be easily added to multimedia applications without requiring dedicated hardware support. As a case study, we use FEC codes to protect AAL5-PDUs from cell losses in ATM networks.

How to determine the source-visiting sequence among the target sensor nodes and manage the mobile agent (MA) effectively is the crucial problem in Mobile-Agent-based computing model for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). In this paper, we propose a novel improved Directed Diffusion-based MA mechanism (IDDMA) for WSNs. IDDMA uses an improved gradient generation algorithm to set up multiple optimal gradients among sensor nodes. The source nodes will subsequently send two distinct types of the exploratory data packet to implement the discovery of the sources and build the routing tables for the MA routing, respectively. Then, the MA in target region could choose its next-hop node dynamically according to the established routing table for MA in each source node and achieve the data fusion; finally it will return to the Sink. Simulation results show that the mechanism outperforms two existing routing protocols in end-to-end packet delay and average energy consumption.

In wireless channels, the signal quality degrades mainly due to the additive noise and the random variation of attenuation of the signal, known as fading. The additive noise can be compensated to some extent using forward error correction (FEC) coding and automatic repeat request (ARQ). The fading can be compensated not only with FEC codes and ARQ schemes but also using spatial diversity and multiplexing achieved by employing multiple antenna systems, known as multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems. MIMO schemes fall into different categories based on system requirements, e.g., space-time block codes (STBCs) and limited feedback schemes.

This document generally describes how to use Forward Error Correction (FEC) codes to efficiently provide and/or augment reliability for data transport. primary focus of this document is the application of FEC codes to one-to-many reliable data transport using IP multicast. This document describes what information is needed to identify a specific FEC code, what information needs to be communicated out-of-band to use the FEC code, and what information is needed in data packets to identify the encoding symbols they carry. procedures for specifying FEC codes and registering them with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) are also described. This document should be read in conjunction with and uses the terminology of the companion document titled, The Use of Forward Error Correction (FEC) in Reliable Multicast.

During data exchange in wireless networks, an error in transmission can occur. Corrupted data cannot be further processed without a correction. A technique based on either Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) or Forward Error Correction (FEC) is conventionally used to repair erroneous data in wireless networks. The ARQ is backward mechanism that uses a feedback channel for the confirmation of error-free data delivery or to request a retransmission of corrupted data. This method can increase a network throughput if radio channel conditions are getting worse (Sambale et al., 2008). On the other hand, the ARQ method increases the delay of packets due to the retransmission of former unsuccessfully received packets. The FEC can increase user’s data throughput over the channel with poor quality despite the fact that additional redundant bits are coded together with users’ data at the transmitter side. The method combining both above mentioned methods is called Hybrid ARQ (HARQ). All three error correction mechanisms are implemented on physical and/or Medium Access Control (MAC) layer.

The preference improvement resulting from modifications to the original ARQ scheme proposed by E.J. Weldon (1982) for use in systems with finite-receiver buffers was analyzed in a previous paper. A modification involving the use of parity retransmission is studied. One drawback of using forward error correcting (FEC) codes is that the parity bits result in a degradation in efficiency under good channel conditions: the maximum throughput is limited to the FEC code rate. Two type II ARQ schemes which overcome this problem are studied. Lower bounds on the throughputs of the two schemes are obtained. The throughput of the type II ARQ scheme is no longer limited by one-half the rate of the FEC code used. Under good channel conditions, the throughput with the type II ARQ scheme is equivalent to not using FEC; as the channel degrades, it approaches the throughput with a rate one-half FEC code.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

In this paper, we study two problems of providing reliable data transmission and developing aggregation techniques for correlated data in wireless sensor networks. A system with forward error correction (FEC) can provide an objective reliability while using less transmission power than a system without FEC. Because of the additional parity bits and encoding/decoding energy consumptions, we study the effect of FEC on energy efficiency. We propose to use LDPC codes for FEC. We show that wireless sensor networks using LDPC codes are almost 45% more energy efficient than those that use BCH codes, which were shown to be 15% more energy efficient than the best performing convolutional codes. Then we study the problem of providing aggregation for two and three correlated nodes in wireless sensor networks. We propose to use LDPC codes in wireless sensor networks for source and channel coding to obtain a two-fold energy savings. For two correlated nodes, we study both distributed source coding and joint source-channel coding. While distributed source coding using LDPC codes was studied before, joint source-channel coding using LDPC codes is introduced for the first time. The difference between our work in distributed source coding using LDPC codes and the previous work lies in the LDPC code design procedure. The simulation results show that our proposed design criteria improves the performance of the source coding. The convergence of the non-uniform LDPC code of our design technique is almost 60% closer to the Slepian-Wolf limit. For three correlated nodes, we study distributed source coding using LDPC codes. We simplified the problem of design procedure to randomly punctured LDPC codes. This is a new approach for designing LDPC codes and the simulation results for code of length 1000 shows that the convergence of the LDPC code is achieved at compression rate 0.3174 which is only 0.08 away from the Slepian-Wolf limit.

TCSLP: A trace cost based source location privacy protection scheme in WSNs for smart cities

Achieving reliable and energy-saving broadcast is the main issue discussed in this study. Firstly, a multi-hop broadcast model is introduced, and the energy consumption and reliability of the network are defined in this study. Then five broadcast-based automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols (automatic retransmission N times, stop-and-wait end-to-end-ARQ, stop-and-wait hop-by-hop-ARQ, stop-and-wait hop-by-hop oriented implicit ARQ, stop-and-wait hop-by-hop implicit and explicit ARQ) are proposed to realise the reliable transmission. Secondly, based on five protocols, the relationship between the system reliability and the number of retransmissions of the root node is established analytically, and the maximum number of retransmissions is solved under the required system reliability. Thirdly, the energy consumptions of the root node are calculated, and then the analytical expressions of the minimum system energy consumption are obtained separately according to five broadcast-based retransmission mechanisms. Finally, the relationships between the maximum number of retransmissions, energy consumption and reliability, the broadcast probability and feedback probability are discussed in the numerical analysis. Specially, for better energy-saving, the modulation technique should be adopted to choose suitable protocol based on a dynamic hop threshold.