Cryptography's Role in Securing the Information Society

Technologically advanced artificial intelligence (AI) is making a significant contribution to strengthening national security. AI algorithms facilitate the processing of vast amounts of information, increasing the speed and accuracy of decision-making. Artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI/ML) are crucial for state and integrated hybrid attacks and protecting new threats in cyberspace. Existing AI capabilities have significant potential to impact national security by leveraging existing machine learning technology for automation in labor-intensive activities such as satellite imagery analysis and defense against cyber attacks. This article examines selected aspects of the impact of artificial intelligence on enhancing a state’s ability to protect its interests and its citizens., artificial intelligence through the use of neutron networks, predictive analytics and machine learning algorithms enables security agencies to analyse vast amounts of data and identify patterns indicative of potential threats. Integrating artificial intelligence into surveillance, border control and threat assessment systems enhances the ability to respond preemptively to security challenges. In addition, artificial intelligence algorithms facilitate the processing of vast amounts of information, increasing the speed and accuracy of decision-making by police authorities. The rapid development of AI raises a number of questions for its use in securing not only national security but protecting all citizens. In particular, it is worth answering the question How does artificial intelligence affect national security and clarifying the issue of how law enforcement agencies can use artificial intelligence to maximise the benefits of the new technology in terms of security and protecting communities from rising crime. The analysis is based on a descriptive method in describing the phenomenon; by explaining the concepts and applications of artificial intelligence to determine its role in the national security sphere. An analysis of the usefulness of artificial intelligence in particular in police operations is undertaken, with the aim of defending the thesis that, despite some threats to the protection of human rights from AI, it is becoming the best tool in the fight against all types of crime in the country. Technological advances in AI can also have many positive effects for law enforcement, and useful for law enforcement agencies, for example in facilitating the identification of persons or vehicles, predicting trends in criminal activities, tracking illegal criminal activities or illegal money flows, flagging and responding to fake news. Artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as one of the biggest threats to information security, but efforts are being made to mitigate this new threat, but also to find solutions on how AI can become an ally in the fight against cyber-security, crime and terrorist threats. Artificial intelligence algorithms search huge datasets of communication traffic, satellite images and social media posts to identify potential cyber security threats, terrorist activities and organized crime. It is advisable, when analyzing the opportunities and threats that AI poses to national and public security, to gain a strategic advantage in the context of rapid technological change and also to manage the many risks associated with AI. The conclusion highlights the impact of AI on national security, creating a range of new opportunities coupled with challenges that government agencies should be prepared for in addressing ethical and security dilemmas. Furthermore, AI improves predictive analytics, thereby enabling security agencies to more accurately anticipate potential threats and enhance their preparedness by identifying vulnerabilities in the national security infrastructure

The article investigates the legal regulation of cross-border information systems that operate within the Schengen area. These information systems are the Schengen Information System, Visa Information System and the European Travel Information and Authorisation System. The information systems provide the opportunity of free access to the database of border and law enforcement authorities of the Schengen area member states. These authorities are able to quick and efficient collaboration as well as in interaction in support of national security, public order and effective fight against organized crime, border-crossing of illegal immigrants, drug trafficking etc. The article defines that in addition to cooperation between the competent and relevant authorities of the Schengen area member states the information systems are to be the instruments of the freedom of movement of persons, contributing at the same time of public order and national security of each of the European countries. The article analyses the main tasks and purposes of a new European travel information and authorization system. In particular, the system concerns those countries that have already signed agreements on visa-free regime with the EU. In practice, it means that the citizens of "visa-free" countries will be able to travel to the Schengen area member states without a visa, but they are required to be authorized through this system before the trip. The research also analyzes the regulations of the European Union, western and national doctrine in respect of the operation of cross-border information systems within the Schengen area.

The aim of the study was to determine the most effective model for regulating law enforcement in Europe and the post-Soviet space, as well as to formulate recommendations for the unification and standardization of legislation in this area. The empirical background was statistics on crime rates, premeditated murders by country; provisions of legislation governing the law enforcement activities of 13 countries and international regulations. Methods of system approach, descriptive statistics, descriptive analysis, generalization and prognosis, system selection, comparative method was used. The activities of law enforcement agencies are aimed at ensuring public order, national security and the protection of human rights, freedoms, and interests. Each state has its own law enforcement system, which is clearly regulated. The main indicator of the effectiveness of law enforcement is the crime rate and the level of security in the country. It is concluded that the most effective is the law enforcement model with its fundamental principles of decentralization of law enforcement agencies.

The tension The distinction between law enforcement and intelligence activities becomes more evident when local and federal authorities are involved. agencies are involved, especially when national security measures disrupt traditional policing efforts. This conflict is particularly evident in larger police departments focused on counterterrorism activities. The history of overreach in intelligence gathering has led to a reconsideration of surveillance tactics, and law enforcement agencies now balance crime prevention with maintaining community trust. The impact of federal initiatives, such as those aimed at supporting narcotics and violent crime enforcement, has further complicated these dynamics. Research significance: This research is significant as it examines the complex relationship between law enforcement practices and community dynamics, particularly in the context of counterterrorism and gang-related activities. It highlights the challenges faced by local agencies in balancing national security priorities with maintaining public trust, offering insights for future policing strategies and policies. Methodology: The methodology employs the Weighted Product Model (WPM) to evaluate multiple alternatives across various criteria. WPM uses a multiplicative approach, where each criterion is assigned a weight, and alternatives are scored based on their performance in each parameter. The model helps in identifying the most optimal alternative based on weighted performance. Alternative: A1 Full Stack Tech Lead , A2 AI-Powered Data Solutions Architect, A3 Senior Systems Engineer – Law Enforcement, A4 Principal Data Integrity Specialist , A5 Cloud AI and Data Integration Lead , A6 Modular Application Development Manager , A7 Technical Lead – Centralized Dashboard Applications Evalution parameter: C1 Relevance to Scope , C2 Industry Recognition , C3Leadership Emphasis, C4 Innovation Representation, C5Genericness , C6 Narrow Focus , C7 Complexity Result: The analysis identifies A2 and A3 as the most suitable choices for innovation-driven and leadership-intensive roles. A4 and A7 offer value in niche domains, while A1, A5, and A6 are better suited for balanced, generalist applications

The Institutional Logic of Preventive Crime

High tech criminal threats to the national information infrastructure

The objective of the paper is to posit that family care, educational systems, institutions, such as healthcare and law enforcement, when they fail to act in unison, may, in fact, contribute indirectly to a volatile school crisis, which in turn may evolve into disasters, such as school shootings and/or suicide. The 1999 Columbine High School massacre, compiled into a case study, has served as the empirical source for the study. Next to the poorly synchronised family and institutional efforts to correctly diagnose psychopathic traits in one per petrator and depression in the other, and failure to recognise their acute emotional crisis, two other variables contributing to the Columbine High shooting have been proposed. It is hypothesised that bullying (largely undermined and underestimated) to which Harris and Klebold had been exposed for at least four years, dur ingthe milestone 12 to 17 life stage, and the dysfunctional relationship between them, might have been the other massacre driving agents. Several negative repercussions of the Columbine shooting, such as worldwide copycat school shootings, resulting from a cult status of the Columbine murderers as well as their massive presence on the Internet and in pop culture, have been enumerated. Follow-up and further research studies have been proposed, including some quantitative projects, on bullying and cyber bullying among adolescents. Recommendations for decision makers have been listed.

The article is devoted to the analysis of constitutional and legal problems of ensuring the security of society and the state in all their multifaceted economic, political and legal content. Negative factors affecting basic constitutional values are indicated: conflicts, gaps and other defects in legislation, inconsistencies between natural law and positive norms, legal nihilism of subjects of constitutional-legal relations, low level of their legal culture, abuse of law. Legal (legal) security, which is a derivative and integral component of information security, is analyzed. It is argued that in a legal state, legal information is the basis of the existence of the state itself, its ability to successfully protect the values of civilized coexistence. The purpose of the research was to determine the essence of the constitution, as a normative and legal basis for resolving social contradictions in society and the state and achieving on this basis the security of the individual, society and the state, as a legally legitimized balance of interests of all social groups of society, as a measure of the balance achieved in society and the state between power and freedom. The article deals with issues related to risk factors in the field of legal security and risk factors that are directly related to law-making or law enforcement. The issues and directions of protection of the Constitution itself at the level of national security against attempts at illegitimate modernization, facts of replacing constitutional norms with political expediency have been studied. The position that the Constitution should define internal security by establishing a certain level of the degree of protection of its own provisions at the level of national security is substantiated, since attempts to illegitimately modernize the Constitution and the facts of replacing constitutional norms with political expediency remain relevant. It is argued that constitutional security is an integral part of national security, as it primarily involves the security state of the country’s constitutional system and the main act that enshrines it - the Constitution, including the elimination of its abuse. An analysis of the relationship and interdependence of the concepts «constitutional law», «national security» and «constitutional security» was carried out. Conclusions were made that, based on the essential characteristics of the constitution, as a set of main norms of direct action, it is an indisputable and unique guarantee of the stability of the political system, the main guarantor of the realization of the vital values of the people, a legally legitimized balance of interests of all social groups of society, to the extent achieved in society and the state balance between power and freedom. The argument is supported that practically all institutions of constitutional law have a direct influence on the provision of the national security system. This is confirmed in almost all functions of the constitution - constitutive, organizational, foreign policy, ideological and, of course, legal, and therefore - they must receive consistent specification and development in sectoral as well as special legislation, which has as its subject the legal regulation of national security. It is proposed that since the legal regulation of national security is carried out by the Constitution of Ukraine and other acts of constitutional legislation, accordingly, it is a full-fledged institution of constitutional law and is subject to study within the framework of the subject of constitutional and legal science. It is noted that any measures to ensure national security cannot be carried out outside the legal field of the state, in a way and by bodies not provided for by legislation, and since the Constitution is the basis of legislation, we have every reason to consider ensuring national security as the main function of the Constitution, along with regulation of other spheres of social relations.

The relationship between national security and human rights remains a central challenge for democratic states, particularly in the context of crime control and law enforcement. In Kenya, security operations aimed at countering terrorism, maintaining public order, and safeguarding territorial integrity have frequently generated tensions with constitutional and international human rights obligations. This paper examines the nexus between national security and human rights in Kenya through the analytical framework of Van Kempen’s four human rights–security concepts. Adopting a qualitative doctrinal and conceptual research design, the study analyses constitutional provisions, security legislation, judicial decisions, and international human rights instruments relevant to Kenya’s security governance. The findings demonstrate that human rights and national security are not mutually exclusive but are interdependent and mutually reinforcing when grounded in the rule of law. Human rights function as safeguards against abuse of state power, legitimate grounds for proportionate security interventions, and positive obligations requiring the state to protect individuals from harm. However, persistent gaps between normative commitments and operational practice continue to undermine effective security governance. The paper concludes that a human rights–centered approach to national security is essential for legitimacy, public trust, and sustainable peace in Kenya, and offers policy recommendations to strengthen rights-based security frameworks.

The activities of all involved in the field of information security of state structures should be well coordinated within the framework of common programs and plans, as well as certain functions. The functioning of all state structures involved in the sphere of information security is analysed and it is indicated that their activities should be clearly coordinated within the framework of general programs and plans, as well as certain functions. Attention is paid to the fact that the modern information policy of Ukraine is characterized by inconsistency, lack of coordination in the activities of various authorities, lack of transparency in the adoption and implementation of political decisions. It is proposed for the effective implementation of programs in the field of information security, the state should provide the necessary material resources, train specialists, develop the regulatory framework. Considering this, the Ukrainian legislation defines state structures that are subjects of national security. The priority directions of development of national information policy and information security of our state are formulated in the national doctrine of information security of Ukraine and enshrined in various laws.For effective implementation of information security programs, the state should provide the necessary material resources to train professionals to develop a legislative framework. Taking this into account in the Ukrainian legislation specifies the governmental structures that are subject to national security. Priority directions of development of the national information policy and information security in our country formulated a national information security doctrine of Ukraine and enshrined in various laws. But the legislation on important issues of information security is still haphazard, and functions to ensure the information security policy and state dissipated among various entities is not conducive to their sustainable implementation. Thus, the functions and powers of government agencies to implement the information security should be provided with sufficient clarity and certainty.

: National security policy makers have opened the debate on the necessity of revising the Posse Comitatus Act (Title 18, U.S. Code, Section 1385) to confront extant threats to homeland security. A unique confluence of circumstances supports the timing of this debate: the events of 11 September 2001, with their pervasive influence on the Administration's new National Security Strategy; the recent National Strategy for Homeland Security and just-published National Strategy for Combating Terrorism; passage of the bill establishing a new Cabinet-level Department of Homeland Security; and, within the Department of Defense, the establishment of Northern Command, a combatant command tagged with defense of the homeland. The Posse Comitatus Act is not the sacred cow it once may have been. Over time, Congress has gradually carved out exceptions to prohibitions on the use of the military for law enforcement. These legislative measures recognize that proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, with likely access by committed terrorist groups, changes the policy calculus. In a perfect world, local police enforce domestic law while soldiers fight enemies abroad. But the neat dichotomy between law enforcement and national security has blurred. In some cases, using military force in the United States to counter a threat by terrorists may indeed constitute the most effective means to preserve national security. Sections 1 and 2 of this paper present background information on the debate over the military's role in Homeland Security and a history of the Posse Comitatus Act. Subsequent sections discuss the individuals who are calling for a revision of the Act, a conceptual framework for revising or repealing the Act, the benefits of a revision, and the arguments against reform. The author is on the side of those who wish to revise or repeal the Act. (74 refs.)

The key acts shaping the EU data protection legal regime – the General Data Protection Regulation 2016/679 (GDPR) and the Law Enforcement Directive 2016/680 (LED) – explicitly stipulate that they do not apply in areas which fall outside the scope of EU law, such as activities concerning national security (recital 16 and 14 respectively). At the same time, Bulgarian legislation gives a very broad definition of “national security” as a dynamic state of society and the state in which values such as the territorial integrity, sovereignty and the constitutionally established order of the country are protected, and where the democratic functioning of institutions and the fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens are guaranteed. As a result, a variety of competent authorities contribute daily to the protection of these values such as the leading authorities from the legislative and executive power, the president, the law enforcement agencies, the courts, the various regulators, etc. A lot of the data processing activities of these authorities conducted while exercising their powers actually do fall into the scope of the GDPR and the LED and at the same time serve the protection of the national security. To that end, a strict dividing line between national security and other activities of these bodies often cannot be drawn. The present paper argues that the GDPR and the LED should apply to a lot of the activities contributing to the protection of national security which will also be an additional safeguard for the fundamental rights and interests of the individuals and increase the accountability of the competent authorities.

In this research paper, we delve into the conceptual foundations for understanding national security as an object of criminal law protection of the state. We specifically focus on the unique characteristics of its interpretation as a legal category, as well as its place, role, and significance within the broader system of interactions with related fields, including public administration, economics, sociology, political science, and the military-defense sphere. To achieve this, we've analyzed the current state of scholarly research on the chosen topic. Furthermore, drawing on our practical experience in law enforcement, we've identified the styles, approaches, and professional perspectives that shape the understanding of national security as a legal category. This has allowed us to scientifically substantiate our own definition of national security, delineate its object subject to criminal law protection, and define national interests as its core foundation. This approach enabled us to pinpoint the most crucial components of the national security object that warrant criminal law protection: the citizen as its ultimate beneficiary, society, and the state. An analysis of specific provisions within the Special Part of the Criminal Liability Law concerning crimes against the foundations of national security, viewed through the lens of national interests as fundamental needs, goals, and values vital for the existence, development, and security of the citizen, society, and the state, led us to conclude that they serve as a litmus test. This test defines national security as a distinct social phenomenon and legal concept, acting as the red thread that delineates its criminal law protection. A separate section is dedicated to the scientific substantiation of the style, approaches, and professional focus of the perception of national security as a legal category. We also conduct a systemic analysis of the most important components of its criminal law protection object (the citizen as its ultimate beneficiary and national interests as the fundamental basis).

The article examines the problem of systematizing crimes against the foundations of Ukraine’s national security, defining their generic object, functional purpose, and the legal limits of criminalization of such acts. The study emphasizes the interrelation between theoretical and praxeological aspects of the criminal law protection of state security and the practice of counterintelligence and operational-investigative documentation. The author analyzes the evolution of legal approaches to differentiating these crimes, identifies the shortcomings of the current classification, and proposes its improvement taking into account contemporary challenges such as hybrid aggression, information and cyber threats, and the financing of terrorism. A comparative legal analysis of the legislation of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Scandinavian countries allows assessing the effectiveness of various models of criminalization and their adaptability to the Ukrainian legal framework. Particular attention is paid to the issues of proving and documenting crimes against the foundations of national security, to the significance of the subject of proof for organizing counterintelligence and operational-investigative activities, and to the role of procedural legalization of factual data in pre-trial investigation. The study reveals the impact of digital technologies and cyberspace on the state’s criminal law policy and on the boundaries of permissible interference with privacy in the investigation of crimes against sovereignty and territorial integrity. The purpose of the article is to form the author’s conceptual vision of crimes against the foundations of Ukraine’s national security, to determine the specific features of their criminal law classification, and to outline directions for improving legislation in light of contemporary threats, international experience, the theory of evidence, and the practice of counterintelligence activity. The research employs a complex of general scientific and special legal methods of cognition, including dialectical, historical-legal, comparative-legal, formal-legal, as well as methods of systemic analysis and structural-functional generalization. As a result, the author identifies three approaches to understanding the concept of crimes against the foundations of national security: the elemental approach (through the system of elements of the corpus delicti), the praxeological approach (through the activity of authorized bodies and the procedures of proof), and the comprehensive approach (combining legal, organizational, and evidentiary dimensions). Supporting the comprehensive approach, the author defines crimes against the foundations of Ukraine’s national security as socially dangerous acts prescribed by criminal law that encroach upon the fundamental state and social interests in the spheres of sovereignty, territorial integrity, defense capability, information, and political stability of the state. From the author’s standpoint, criminal law activity in the field of national security includes the following elements: subjects (state security and law enforcement agencies), objects (social relations in the sphere of protection of state sovereignty), legal basis (norms of criminal legislation), methods and means (criminalization, prevention, sanctions, and proving), and the result – ensuring the security of the individual, society, and the state. A distinctive feature is that society and the state act simultaneously as subjects and objects of this activity, while the effectiveness of criminal law enforcement depends on the quality of documentation, admissibility of evidence, and compliance with human rights during investigation.

SAFE Bill clears telecommunications subcommittee with amendments