Cultivating inclusive schools: the role of extended professional learning communities

'Inclusion' in education, central to Sustainable Development Goal 4 within Agenda 2030, has gained global prominence. However, its meaning varies widely due to diverse local interpretations, leading to inconsistent practices. The complexity and lack of comprehensive global documentation of the concept often results in confusion, with different stakeholders assigning different meanings to it. This ambiguity challenges the effective implementation of inclusive education policies worldwide. This paper aims to outline the various components of inclusive education, drawing on a comprehensive review of the literature on this concept. The resulting framework is designed to guide educational institutions in implementing effective inclusive practices. Initially, inclusive education was mainly associated with catering for students with disabilities and bridging the gap between special education and mainstream education. However, the concept of inclusion is much wider in scope. The right to inclusive education is now defined as a process that shapes culture, practice and policy within the educational setting. Inclusive education aims to address the diverse needs of individual students, and to remove barriers that hinders the presence, participation and achievement of learners. An inclusive approach places emphasis on providing support to groups of learners who may underachieve or be marginalized or excluded. This paper identifies key core features of inclusive education through an extensive analysis of literature and studies focusing on its practical implementation and monitoring. These features cover various aspects, including the education and learning environment, teacher support, a whole person approach, respect for value of diversity, stakeholder consultation and collaboration, partnerships, financing, monitoring and sharing of expertise and resources. The latter components form a comprehensive framework for understanding and implementing inclusive education practices. Implementing inclusive education effectively requires a shared understanding of its meaning. This paper addresses this challenge by presenting a structured framework of inclusive education components. By providing this practical guide, the paper aims to facilitate the implementation of inclusive practices across diverse learning environments. The proposed framework serves as a valuable tool for institutions seeking to enhance their inclusivity, thus supporting the realization of Sustainable Development Goal 4.

As indicated by the Warnock Report, even 40 years ago, the necessity of responding to different student abilities and needs in school and thus the importance of adequate adaption of a regular curriculum regarding differentiation and personalization had already been described. Due to changes in policy and legislative frameworks, more and more students with special educational needs (SEN) attend regular education. However, placing the students with SEN within mainstream classrooms does not automatically lead to changes in teaching practices in these classrooms. In line with this, it would be interesting to know the way in which and to what extent students in inclusive classes perceive established inclusive practices, such as differentiation and personalization. Therefore, data from 47 inclusive classes from North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany) were collected. In total, 872 primary school students (grade 4; ages 9–11 years) were asked to rate how frequently their class teachers used inclusive instructional practices (personalization and differentiation) using the Inclusive Classroom Practices Scale (ITPS). In addition to students, teachers were also asked to rate their own teaching practices in general and then in addition for each student separately. As differentiated instruction and multifaceted teaching practices are considered to be measures for meeting the needs of children with different educational needs, results that show a high use of these approaches were expected. Descriptive results indicate a consistent homogeneous understanding of prevailing inclusive teaching practices, which could be characterized by existing, but not intensive implementation, of inclusive practices. Differences regarding students' gender, migrant background, or SEN were not found for the students' ratings of teachers' inclusive practices or the teachers' self-ratings group. Moreover, the teachers' student-specific ratings indicate that teachers did not strongly differentiate or personalize with a focus on students' characteristics. A small overlap between teachers' general ratings of their own inclusive teaching practices and students' individual ratings was found. The results of the current study provide insights into actual inclusive teaching practices in German inclusive classrooms and make it possible to address the need for action and inclusive interventions.

ABSTRACTResearch suggests effective professional learning communities (PLCs) enhance teacher collaboration and student achievement. Some studies indicate that these communities also predict greater collective efficacy, while others suggest teacher efficacy is predictive of teachers working together. Although studies have identified effective, research-based PLC practices, how these specific practices effect collective efficacy has not been thoroughly studied. This study, using structural equation modeling (SEM), investigated the relationship between PLCs and teachers’ collective efficacy drawing on 310 surveys from 16 schools in 1 district that had systematically implemented PLCs. Our findings showed that higher functioning PLCs predict higher levels of teacher collective efficacy (TCE). This suggests that engaging and supporting teachers in PLC work, as this district did, can lead to enhanced collective efficacy, which in turn can contribute to improved student achievement.

Inclusive education has emerged as a global priority, emphasizing equitable learning opportunities for all students, including those with special educational needs (SEN). In the Philippines, national policies such as Republic Act 11650 and DepEd Orders 44 and 23 underscore the commitment to inclusive practices. However, the implementation remains challenging, particularly among Key Stage 1 (K1) teachers. This study aimed to assess the level of preparedness of K1 public school teachers in handling learners with special needs in Tagbilaran City Schools Division, Bohol Province, for the school year 2024–2025. Employing a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, quantitative data were gathered through a validated survey questionnaire, while qualitative insights were obtained via reflexive thematic analysis of interviews. Findings revealed that teachers demonstrated a generally positive attitude and moderate skills toward inclusive education but exhibited gaps in knowledge, particularly regarding the use of assistive technologies and individualized education planning. No significant differences were found in preparedness levels across demographic variables such as age, specialization, service length, and educational attainment. Challenges identified included limited training, behavioral management difficulties, resource scarcity, balancing class demands, and inconsistent institutional support. The study concludes that while K1 teachers are motivated, systemic gaps hinder full inclusive practice. An action plan focusing on continuous training, resource enhancement, peer mentoring, and stronger administrative support is proposed to address these challenges. The findings contribute to strengthening inclusive education initiatives, offering policy and practice recommendations applicable to similar urban Philippine contexts and beyond.

Professional learning communities (PLCs) support the growth of educators to improve learning outcomes for all students. Guided by social constructivist and social cognitive theories, this longitudinal participatory action research study explored the implementation of an interdepartmental PLC across Hord’s five dimensions of a successful PLC—supportive and shared leadership, shared beliefs values and vision, collective learning and its application, shared personal practice, and supportive conditions. Additionally, this study explored how engaging with an interdepartmental PLC influenced participants’ collective efficacy. During the PLC, the collective expertise of mathematics teachers, administrators, and additional educational specialists (such as occupational therapists and speech and language pathologists) (n = 13) were leveraged to develop strategies for the improvement of mathematical problem solving among elementary and middle school students with disabilities. Our findings indicate statistically significant increases in the five dimensions of the PLC over time, with qualitative evidence supporting the PLC’s effectiveness. However, our findings revealed no significant increase in participants’ overall collective efficacy, a group’s shared belief that together they can achieve a desired result. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

The development of inclusive education has become a policy priority across the world, yet the reality of enactment is inconsistent. While many barriers contribute to creating inclusive classrooms, effective teacher professional learning (PL) presents a significant challenge. Professional learning communities (PLCs) have been identified as potentially transformative models of PL but despite the growing research base on PLCs, there is limited research on their role in the context of inclusive education. We address this knowledge gap and build upon previous research that demonstrated the positive impact of a PLC on sustained PL for inclusive practice. Situated in the Republic of Ireland, PLCs for inclusive practice were developed in four schools, supported by a school-university partnership, comprising one academic and four teacher leaders. Focus group interviews with the PLC participants (n = 33) and observation of practice in two schools indicated teacher change. Of note, PLCs that transform PL for inclusive practice can be internally led when teachers are empowered through a school-university partnership. This paper strengthens the research on the potential of PLCs as transformative models of PL for inclusive practice and offers a framework that includes design principles for school-university partnerships to support the PLCs for inclusion across diverse school contexts.

The literature supports transformative models of professional learning and development (PLD) such as professional learning communities (PLCs). However, there is a research gap relating to PLCs for inclusive practice. This paper draws on findings from a qualitative study with 10 teachers in an urban primary school in the Republic of Ireland, who engaged in a PLC for inclusive practice facilitated by one of the researchers. Two years later the researchers undertook semi-structured interviews with nine of the original participants and five classroom observations to explore if and how teachers can sustain inclusive practices in changing times. The findings evidenced sustained changes in teachers’ individual and collaborative practices, affirming an argument that PLCs can support teachers to develop and sustain inclusive practices in the longer term. This paper offers a conceptual framework for prospectively planning PLCs to narrow the values practice gap for inclusive practice.

Inclusive resources can contribute to the development of inclusive teaching practices and equity in education. The study aimed to analyze the perception of Brazilian and Portuguese teachers who work with students with special educational needs regarding the inclusive resources available and their inclusive practices, correlating them with personal variables (age, gender) and professional variables (teaching experience, education cycle in which they work, and participation in Special and Inclusive Education courses). A total of 85 Brazilian and 94 Portuguese teachers from public basic education schools participated in the study. The majority were women, with a mean age of 43.6 years among Brazilian teachers and 54.5 years among Portuguese teachers. For most Brazilian teachers, teaching experience was under 20 years, whereas for Portuguese teachers, it was over 20 years. Brazilian teachers predominantly worked in Early Childhood Education and Elementary School I, while Portuguese teachers mainly worked in the third cycle of basic education. Regarding training, 70% of Brazilian teachers and 42% of Portuguese teachers had completed courses in Special and Inclusive Education or related areas. Data collection employed a sociodemographic questionnaire and the Resources and Practices for Inclusive Education instrument, composed of 24 items: nine to assess available resources and 15 to assess inclusive practices in the classroom. Data were collected online. Results indicated that 80% of Portuguese teachers and 34% of Brazilian teachers agreed that resources for inclusion were available. Regarding inclusive practices, 98% of teachers from both countries reported using them in the classroom. Among Brazilian teachers, those with more students specific needs and those who had training in inclusive education perceived more available resources and reported better practices. Brazilian teachers with less experience and those teaching students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and alongside students with other conditions perceived fewer available inclusive resources. Among Portuguese teachers, those who perceived more resources available reported more inclusive practices, and teachers who used additional measures exhibited higher levels of inclusive practices.

While inclusion has generally been accepted as orthodoxy, a knowledge – practice gap remains which indicates a need to focus on inclusive pedagogy. This paper explores how teachers in the Republic of Ireland primary school were supported to develop inclusive pedagogy to meet the needs of learners with special educational needs (SEN). It is underpinned by a conceptual framework which combines an inclusive pedagogical approach and key principles of effective professional development (PD) arising from the literature, which informed the development of a professional learning community (PLC) for inclusive practice in a primary school. The impact of the PD on teachers’ professional practice was explored using an evidence-based evaluation framework. Analysis of interview and observation data evidenced that engagement with inclusive pedagogy in a PLC, underpinned by critical dialogue and public sharing of work, positively impacted teacher attitudes, beliefs, efficacy and inclusive practice. This research offers a model of support for enacting inclusive pedagogy.

The number of students who attend an inclusive school in Turkey has been increasing. This increase in the number of students attending inclusive education makes the inclusive policies more significant and requires that schools of all types and levels should be ready for inclusive practices. This study aims at uncovering the views of school administrators and guidance teachers working at Anatolian high schools concerning the inclusive education. The data of the study were collected through focus group interviews. The study was carried out in Ankara during the school year of 2018–2019 with a sample of school administrators and guidance teachers working at different Anatolian high schools. The findings of the study indicate that there are serious problems in inclusive education practices at Anatolian high schools, the educational setting needed for students with special education needs cannot be provided and teachers do not have necessary experience in inclusive education.

Significant disparities in educational outcome, opportunity, and achievement endure for students with disabilities and those from culturally and linguistically diverse groups. A need for effective, responsive, and inclusive practices in schools is imperative. Educators are at the heart of providing the challenging, responsive education that each child and adolescent deserves. Professional development is the lever of change, but can or help or hinder educators in improving instructional and school practices that result in improved outcomes for all students. This chapter examines the evidence base surrounding professional development and inclusive practice. Four approaches to professional development supporting more transformative professional learning and change are featured: inquiry groups (teacher study groups and lesson study); coaching, Professional Learning Communities; and Professional Development Schools. Snapshots to practice are included with each approach to provide integrated descriptive examples of varied inclusive professional development practices.

The challenge of educating children with special educational needs in the same mainstream classroom settings as their peers has been recognised internationally. Research suggests mainstream teachers are inadequately prepared for inclusive education. Herein, we explored teachers’ views on inclusive practice using a descriptive qualitative study design with semi-structured interviews and classroom observations in a mainstream private school. The participants comprised five mainstream classroom teachers, three learning support teachers and two teacher aides observed in four inclusive classrooms. Thematic analysis identified four major themes: Experience grows confidence; Available support; Resource needs and Changing mind-sets. Most participants did not receive formal inclusive practice training prior to commencing teaching and only acquired skills through teaching experience. The importance of administrative support, human resources, regular in-service training, changing mindsets and barriers to effective practices, including teaching undiagnosed children were major highlights emphasised by participants. Although the findings of this study are specific to the chosen mainstream inclusive primary school, the outcomes of the study could be beneficial to other primary education stakeholders as it has the potential to facilitate effective inclusive educational practice in the classroom.

Aim.This article provides a preliminary review of the research background as part of a doctoral thesis formulation process within the framework of the Interinstitutional Doctorate in Education at the Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. The review integrated two key categories of analysis linked to discourses on school inclusion: inclusive education and inclusive pedagogical practices. Data were collected from institutional repositories, databases, and indexers at national and international levels. Methodology. A documentary study was conducted as a background review with a 10-year observation window. The study followed criteria established by the PRISMA protocol for systematic reviews. Using specified categories and inclusion criteria—such as date, language, and context—we screened 950 documents. These were initially classified based on abstract review and subsequently filtered for relevance, yielding a final sample of 72 texts (n = 72) that underwent open coding and comprehensive analysis. Results. The analyzed documents assume the category of inclusive educational practices as part of the discussion on inclusive education. The following trends were identified: a direct relationship between the concepts of inclusion and disability; educational inclusion that mainly includes individuals with disabilities; and the perception and feeling of teachers—above theoretical references—as a criterion for research production on the topic of inquiry.

Teacher self-efficacy and inclusive education practices: Rethinking teachers’ engagement with inclusive practices

The aim of this study was to analyse principals’ sense of efficacy regarding their teacher supervision practices in the context of a professional learning communities (PLC), and to establish correlations between these senses of efficacy and PLC supervisory practices. A questionnaire on principals’ practices and perceptions (self-efficacy, collective efficacy, teachers’ performance) in a professional learning communities (PLC) was administered (N = 81) in two Canadian provinces. Results indicate significant differences between (a) the sense of collective efficacy (SCE), self-efficacy (SSE), and professional efficacy (SPE). In this regard, SCE ranked the highest. The different senses of efficacy of these leaders are linked to their practices and perceptions in the context of a PLC. The processes by which principals develop these senses of efficacy with regard to their practices in supervising PLCs are not well understood and thus warrant further studies.