Decarbonization of Off-Road, Rail, Marine, and Aviation (DORMA) Program (2023 Annual Progress Report)

The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction potentials of various near- and long-term transportation technologies were estimated. The estimated per-travel-distance GHG emissions results indicate that alternative transportation fuels and advanced vehicle technologies can help to significantly reduce transportation-related GHG emissions. Of the near-term technologies evaluated, electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, compression-ignition, direct-injection vehicles, and E85 (85 percent ethanol and 15 percent gasoline) flexible-fuel vehicles can reduce fuelcycle GHG emissions by more than 25 percent on a fuel-cycle basis. Electric vehicles powered by electricity generated primarily from nuclear and renewable sources can reduce GHG emissions by 80 percent. Other alternative fuels (such as compressed natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas) offer limited, but positive, GHG emissions reduction benefits. Among the long-term technologies evaluated, conventional sparkignition and compression-ignition engines powered by alternative fuels and gasoline- and diesel-powered advanced vehicles can reduce GHG emissions by 10 to 30 percent. Dedicated ethanol vehicles, electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel-cell vehicles can reduce GHG emissions by more than 40 percent. Spark-ignition engines and fuel-cell vehicles powered by cellulosic ethanol and solar hydrogen (for fuel-cell vehicles only) can reduce GHG emissions by over 80 percent. In conclusion, both near- and long-term alternative fuels and advanced transportation technologies can play a role in reducing GHG emissions from the transportation sector.

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine the effects of three strategic environmental options on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Namely, we examine the effects of pollution prevention and waste management (PPWM) practices, green supply chain (GSC) practices, and outsourcing on reducing local and supply chain GHG emissions.Design/methodology/approachUsing ASSET4 and deploying first-differencing fixed-effects panel data models, the study conducts a large-scale empirical examination on the effects of these focal strategic environmental options on GHG emissions.FindingsThis study finds that PPWM practices reduce local GHG emissions and that GSC practices reduce supply chain GHG emissions. The results also show that outsourcing does not reduce local GHG emissions and has an adverse effect on supply chain GHG emissions.Practical implicationsThe study findings indicate that environmental practices are effective in reducing GHG emissions. However, they are effective only in their corresponding domain. Further, outsourcing is not a viable strategic option, and managers should be mindful of its undesired environmental consequences.Originality/valueFirms undertake strategic environmental options, such as implementing environmental practices and reallocating production activities, to improve their environmental performance. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of these options on reducing GHG emissions has not been thoroughly examined.

Climate Change and Health: Strengthening the Evidence Base for Policy

Diesel fueled generators are widely used for power generation in remote and/or off-grid communities. In such communities, local organic waste streams can be used to generate biogas which can be used to replace diesel used by diesel generators to lower fuel cost and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Diesel powered generators can be easily retrofitted with a biogas dosing line in the engine intake to introduce biogas, but appropriate optimization would be of great help to further improve generator performance and reduce GHG emissions. The objective of this research is to demonstrate simplified optimization methods that can reduce GHG emissions (carbon dioxide and methane) from such retrofitted dual-fuel engines under various biogas compositions. The study was conducted on a modern 30 kilowatt (kW) generator using an electronically controlled, four-stroke, four-cylinder, direct injection, turbo-charged diesel engine. The engine was operated with the factory electronic control unit (ECU) and a programmable ECU which allowed for control of the fuel injections and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve. Biogas was simulated by using natural gas (with more than 95% methane by volume) which was diluted with either carbon dioxide or nitrogen. This study consisted of two areas. The first one was the comparison of the engine performance when operating with biogas using the factory ECU and the programmable ECU with user optimized fuel injection. The second one was the influence of volume fraction of carbon dioxide or nitrogen in the biogas. The test results reinforced the importance of optimizing the diesel injections when the engine was operated in the biogas-diesel dual-fuel mode to ensure complete combustion and achieve a reduction in GHG emissions. Increasing nitrogen fraction had a minimal effect on the emissions, but increasing carbon dioxide fraction caused the NOx and methane emissions to decrease, and the indicated thermal efficiency to increase.

Agriculture contributes approximately 14% of greenhouse gases at global scale and 7% at national level. Fertilizer using urea is one of agriculture's activities that produces greenhouse gases. Indonesian government's commitment to reduce greenhouse emission by 26% in 2020 by establishing Rencana Aksi Nasional (National Action Plan) reducing greenhouse gases. In this National Act Plan, agricultural sector is obligated to reduce gas emission by 8 Gg CO2e. This research aims to calculate greenhouse gas emission that is being produced by the using urea fertilizer in Boyolali Regency, as well as its mitigation plan. The result shows that the using organic fertilizer as the substitute of urea fertilizer can reduce greenhouse gas emission. The emission of greenhouse gas from using urea fertilizer in Boyolali Regency in the form of CO2 was 18,386 tons CO2, and in the form of N2O was 42,956 tons CO2e. Meanwhile, the greenhouse gas emission from using organic fertilizer was only in the form of N2O as much as 48,575 tons CO2e. Overall, the use of organic fertilizer can reduce greenhouse gas emission by 12,768 CO2e.

There is a growing recognition of the role that walking and cycling can make in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by substituting motorized travel, particularly on short trips. However, there is a lack of evidence at the micro level on the realistic, empirically derived potential of walking and cycling to displace motorized travel and thus reduce GHG emissions. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential for GHG emissions savings from replacing short car trips with walking and cycling and the extent to which high quality infrastructure for walking and cycling may influence day-to-day travel decisions, change the spatial and temporal nature of local journeys and impact on overall GHG emissions from motorised travel.To achieve this aim this study conducted an in-depth observational study of a purposively selected cohort of 50 residents in Cardiff, Wales. Using a mixed-method approach detailed quantitative and qualitative data were collected for each participant using personal Global Position System (GPS) devices, 7-day travel diaries and contextual interviews over two seasonally matching 7-day time periods in 2011 and 2012. GHG emissions for motorized travel modes were derived using journey distance, vehicle technology details and average speeds obtained from the GPS data. The spatial and contextual data provided new insights into the complexities of walking behaviour and factors influencing cycling for everyday travel or recreation, including route choice decisions, activity destinations and the role of the new infrastructure to enable change.We found significant potential of active travel to substitute short car trips, with sizeable impacts on carbon emissions from personal travel. Half of all car trips were less than 3 miles long. Taking into account individual travel patterns and constraints, walking or cycling could realistically substitute for 41% of short car trips, saving nearly 5% of CO2e emissions from car travel. This was on top of 5% of ‘avoided’ emissions from cars due to existing walking and cycling. The evolving high quality walking and cycling infrastructure in the case study area was unlikely to promote a significant reduction in carbon emissions from (displaced) car journeys on its own.The study contributes to the debate on how to achieve stringent low carbon targets in urban transport. The combination of methods for data collection developed and employed in this study also helps to inform future research on the wider environmental impacts of active travel, including ‘co-benefits’ of improved air quality, reduced noise and reduced fossil fuel use.

Greenhouse gas emission responses to different soil amendments on the Loess Plateau, China

Greenhouse gas emission impacts of use of Norwegian wood pellets: a sensitivity analysis

Abstract. Although the concept of producing higher yields with reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is a goal that attracts increasing public and scientific attention, the trade-off between high yields and GHG emissions in intensive agricultural production is not well understood. Here, we hypothesize that there exists a mechanistic relationship between wheat grain yield and GHG emission, and that could be transformed into better agronomic management. A total 33 sites of on-farm experiments were investigated to evaluate the relationship between grain yield and GHG emissions using two systems (conventional practice, CP; high-yielding systems, HY) of intensive winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in China. Furthermore, we discussed the potential to produce higher yields with lower GHG emissions based on a survey of 2938 farmers. Compared to the CP system, grain yield was 39% (2352 kg ha−1) higher in the HY system, while GHG emissions increased by only 10%, and GHG emission intensity was reduced by 21%. The current intensive winter wheat system with farmers' practice had a median yield and maximum GHG emission rate of 6050 kg ha−1 and 4783 kg CO2 eq ha−1, respectively; however, this system can be transformed to maintain yields while reducing GHG emissions by 26% (6077 kg ha−1, and 3555 kg CO2 eq ha−1). Further, the HY system was found to increase grain yield by 39% with a simultaneous reduction in GHG emissions by 18% (8429 kg ha−1, and 3905 kg CO2 eq ha−1, respectively). In the future, we suggest moving the trade-off relationships and calculations from grain yield and GHG emissions to new measures of productivity and environmental protection using innovative management technologies.

To reduce carbon intensity, an improved management method balancing the reduction in costs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is required for Tianjin’s waste management system. Firstly, six objective functions, namely, cost minimization, GHG minimization, eco-efficiency minimization, cost maximization, GHG maximization and eco-efficiency maximization, are built and subjected to the same constraints with each objective function corresponding to one scenario. Secondly, GHG emissions and costs are derived from the waste flow of each scenario. Thirdly, the range of GHG emissions and costs of other potential scenarios are obtained and plotted through adjusting waste flow with infinitely possible step sizes according to the correlation among the above six scenarios. And the optimal scenario is determined based on this range. The results suggest the following conclusions. 1) The scenarios located on the border between scenario cost minimization and GHG minimization create an optimum curve, and scenario GHG minimization has the smallest eco-efficiency on the curve; 2) Simple pursuit of eco-efficiency minimization using fractional programming may be unreasonable; 3) Balancing GHG emissions from incineration and landfills benefits Tianjin’s waste management system as it reduces GHG emissions and costs.

<p><strong>Background</strong>. Feeding cattle in small-scale silage-based dairy production systems can improve their production efficiency while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. <strong>Objective</strong>. To determine the effect of partial replacement of corn silage with sorghum silage on the concentration of secondary metabolites in terms of Total Phenols (TP), Total Tannins (TT), and Condensed Tannins (CT), as well as to estimate methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. <strong>Methodology</strong>. The treatments were analyzed with a split-plot experimental design where the treatments (main plot) were; T1 = 50% sorghum silage cv Top Green + 50% corn silage, T2 = 50% sorghum silage cv Caña Dulce + 50% corn silage, T3 = 100% corn silage cv Cenzontle (control), and the measurement periods were the minor plots. <strong>Results</strong>. Inclusion of sorghum silage decreased enteric methane and carbon dioxide emissions (P<0.05), even though the concentration of phytochemical compounds among cultivars was not variable (P>0.05). <strong>Implications</strong>. Understanding the impact of changing forage chemical composition on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in dairy systems is an important issue for mitigating climate change. <strong>Conclusions</strong>. The inclusion of sorghum silage in this study slightly reduced enteric methane and carbon dioxide emissions. Under these conditions, it is suggested that more information be provided on greenhouse gas emission factors and mitigation strategies in small-scale production systems.</p>

The Paris agreement is exerting pressure on industries that generate significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, such as transportation. Electrification can help reduce GHG emissions from light duty vehicles, but it is unfeasible for heavy duty vehicles that are predominately powered by diesel engines. Fuel switching from diesel to low carbon fuels is a more practical way helping reduce GHG emissions from heavy duty vehicles. Natural gas and renewable natural gas are low carbon or renewable fuels that generate much less carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions than diesel during combustion. Natural gas/renewable natural gas – diesel dual fuel combustion is an efficient way to replace diesel by natural gas/renewable natural gas in heavy duty diesel engines. This paper reports an experimental investigation on combustion and GHG emissions of a heavy duty natural gas – diesel dual fuel engine at different load/speed conditions. The variation in the effect of natural gas fraction on engine performance with changing engine load was compared and analyzed. Nitrous oxide (N2O), nitrogen oxides (NOx), methane (CH4) and CO2 emissions were experimentally investigated and analyzed. The results revealed that the effect of natural gas fraction on engine performance changed with varying engine load and speed condition. N2O emissions from a dual fuel engine changed with increasing natural gas fraction, but the effect of N2O emissions on overall GHG emissions was not significant. However, CH4 emissions contributed significantly to the overall GHG emissions in a dual fuel engine, especially at low load conditions.

This research evaluates strategies aimed at lowering automobile emissions in the automobile industries of 4 ASEAN countries- Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, with an emphasis on the Philippines’s implementation of Euro 4 gas emission standards. Regulations based on vehicle technology are critical in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, restrictions vary based on each country's level of economic development, policy, and technological foundation. Using the example of Euro 4 car emission rules, this research studied the implementation process and strategies of each ASEAN nation. It then examines the responsibilities of the government, foreign automakers, and local suppliers in the Philippines. The findings indicate that the strategies of car manufacturers have had a favorable influence on the technological capabilities of local suppliers.

The desire to reduce carbon emissions due to transportation sources has led over the past decade to the development of new propulsion technologies, focused on vehicle electrification (including hybrid, plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles). These propulsion technologies, along with advances in telecommunication and computing power, have the potential of making passenger and commercial vehicles more energy efficient and environment friendly. In particular, energy management algorithms are an integral part of plug-in vehicles and are very important for achieving the performance benefits. The optimal performance of energy management algorithms depends strongly on the ability to forecast energy demand from the vehicle. Information available about environment (temperature, humidity, wind, road grade, etc.) and traffic (traffic density, traffic lights, etc.), is very important in operating a vehicle at optimal efficiency. This article outlines some current technologies that can help achieving this optimum efficiency goal. In addition to information available from telematic and geographical information systems, knowledge of projected vehicle charging demand on the power grid is necessary to build an intelligent energy management controller for future plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles. The impact of charging millions of vehicles from the power grid could be significant, in the form of increased loading of power plants, transmission and distribution lines, emissions and economics (information are given and discussed for the US case). Therefore, this effect should be considered in an intelligent way by controlling/scheduling the charging through a communication based distributed control.

Cellulosic ethanol is widely believed to offer substantial environmental advantages over petroleum fuels and grain‐based ethanol, particularly in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transportation. The environmental impacts of biofuels are largely caused by precombustion activities, feedstock production and conversion facility operations. Life cycle analysis (LCA) is required to understand these impacts. This article describes a field‐to‐blending terminal LCA of cellulosic ethanol produced by biochemical conversion (hydrolysis and fermentation) using corn stover or switchgrass as feedstock. This LCA develops unique models for most elements of the biofuel production process and assigns environmental impact to different phases of production. More than 30 scenarios are evaluated, reflecting a range of feedstock, technology and scale options for near‐term and future facilities. Cellulosic ethanol, as modeled here, has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to petroleum‐based liquid transportation fuels, though substantial uncertainty exists. Most of the conservative scenarios estimate GHG emissions of approximately 45–60 g carbon dioxide equivalent per MJ of delivered fuel (g CO2e MJ−1) without credit for coproducts, and 20–30 g CO2e MJ−1 when coproducts are considered. Under most scenarios, feedstock production, grinding and transport dominate the total GHG footprint. The most optimistic scenarios include sequestration of carbon in soil and have GHG emissions below zero g CO2e MJ−1, while the most pessimistic have life‐cycle GHG emissions higher than petroleum gasoline. Soil carbon changes are the greatest source of uncertainty, dominating all other sources of GHG emissions at the upper bound of their uncertainty. Many LCAs of biofuels are narrowly constrained to GHG emissions and energy; however, these narrow assessments may miss important environmental impacts. To ensure a more holistic assessment of environmental performance, a complete life cycle inventory, with over 1100 tracked material and energy flows for each scenario is provided in the online supplementary material for this article.