Defining Leadership Training for Physician Assistant Education

New Dimensions of Leadership Toward a Dynamic Model: A Synthesis of Transformational and Servant Leadership

Servant leadership has the potential to improve student satisfaction with online learning. However, the relationship between servant leadership and student satisfaction in an online environment had not yet been understood at the level of the individual instructor. The purpose of this quantitative, correlational study was to evaluate the relationship between online students’ perception of their instructor’s servant leadership style and the student’s satisfaction with the online instructor. We selected 155 online students at a major community college in the south-central United States to complete the Servant Leadership Questionnaire and the Student Evaluation of Teaching survey online. We examined the relationships between each of the five facets of perceived servant leadership style (altruistic calling, emotional healing, wisdom, persuasive mapping, and organizational stewardship) and student satisfaction. The results of the Spearman’s correlations showed a strong positive correlation between all servant leadership behaviors and student satisfaction, p < .001. A multiple linear regression analysis showed that the combination of altruistic calling, persuasive mapping, and wisdom strongly predicted student satisfaction with the instructor, F(3, 151) = 83.8, p < .001, R2= .63. The results of this study have filled a gap in the literature on the relationship between online student satisfaction and individual servant leadership behaviors. We recommend future research to investigate servant leadership in relationship to online learning at 4-year public, for-profit, and private institutions.

Servant leadership has been widely applied in various fields, both in educational organizations or companies and reveals that servant leadership is a leadership style that is relevant and suitable for the development of a leadership style in the 21st century where a principal leader must be able to serve the needs of teachers, education staff, and students in accordance with the demands of the development of science and technology which are very dynamic. This research aims to develop a valid, practical, and effective servant leadership model of school principals in Junior High Schools. This research is an R & D research by using the ADDIE model, namely analyze, design, development, implementation, and evaluation that is carried out in junior high schools in Agam Regency. Data collection techniques used instrument sheets, questionnaires, and documentation. Data were analyzed by using qualitative and quantitative analysis. The servant leadership model validation is determined based on expert responses. The practicality of the servant leadership model is determined based on the response of experts and school principals to the practicality of this model. The effectiveness of the servant leadership model is determined by the results of the expanded trial by the principal in Agam regency. The results of this research, it is obtained a principal servant leadership by producing products in the form of model books and school principal manuals that are valid, practical, and effective to use. The principal to improve leadership qualities namely can use the findings in this research, models of servant leadership are humanists, touches the heart in unity work logic, and actions that led to the creation of the atmosphere of the work.

Introduction: The aim of the study was to investigate innovative health leadership models focusing on the improvement of the quality of life in post-acute care settings. It answered the increasing demand for successful leadership policies towards enhanced patient outcomes and service delivery.Methods: This researcher used a mixed-methods approach, performing quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews with healthcare professionals at multiple post-acute care facilities. The study reviewed data from 150 participants to assess the influence of individual leadership models on care quality and staff morale. These leadership models could include transformational, transactional, servant or a mixture of all.Results: The results showed that patient quality of life in post-acute care settings was significantly enhanced by transformational leadership models. Facilities that implemented this model reported higher patient satisfaction scores and better overall health outcomes than those using transactional and servant leadership models. Staff reported higher job satisfaction and lower burnout rates in transformational leadership settings.Conclusions: Despite which transformational model was used, the study determined that transformational leadership was the best model for post-acute care settings because both patients and staff flourished in this environment. “Transformational Leadership in Healthcare: A 360-Degree Approach” offers a thorough overview of how focusing on empathy, communication, and empowerment can improve patient care and increase job satisfaction among health care workers. In fact, the study called for adoption of transformational leadership training programs that would use the skills to develop existing and future healthcare leaders and, subsequently, enhance quality of life in post-acute-care settings.

The constructs of servant leadership (SL) and emotional intelligence (EI) have gained considerable interest in the discipline of managerial leadership, both within academic discourse and in the human capital management and development arena. However, empirical evidence showed the need for further research on both constructs using the mixed methods approach. The purpose of this research was to explore the role of an integrated servant leadership and emotional intelligence leadership skills program in enhancing leadership performance in Zimbabwe’s commercial banking sector. A mixed methods research triangulation concurrent design was adopted for the research study conducted from 2014 to 2015. A survey questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data from 211 middle, senior and executive managerial staff in the commercial banking sector. SPSS version 22.0 was used to analyze the quantitative data. Qualitative data were collected from a purposive sample of eight senior to executive managers using a structured interview guide and multimedia recording equipment. The qualitative data were analyzed using NVIVO version 10 software package to create themes. The findings showed that servant leadership and emotional intelligence characteristics complement each other and both constructs can be integrated into a managerial leadership program used to develop leadership soft skills or competencies. The findings also showed that both SL and EI skills had a positive influence in enhancing the managers’ effectiveness in undertaking leadership responsibilities and on leadership qualitative performance measures such as articulating vision and strategy, building and sustaining productive organizational culture, development and retention of talent, enhancing employee engagement, improving stakeholder relationship management, retaining bank customers, promotion of diversity, value creation and community involvement. The study led to the development of an integrated SL and EI soft skills leadership program and model which, if implemented, could lead to leadership skills development and performance enhancement. Keywords: leadership, competencies, servant leadership and emotional intelligence. JEL Classification: E58, G21, M12

PurposeThis paper develops and tests a model for managing workplace bullying by integrating employee perceived servant leadership, resilience and proactive personality. Specifically, this paper explores servant leadership as an inhibitive factor for workplace bullying, both directly and indirectly in the presence of employee resilience as a mediator. It further explores whether proactive personality moderates the indirect relationship.Design/methodology/approachThis is an empirical study based on analysis of survey data collected from 408 employees working in services and manufacturing sector organisations in Pakistan. Structural equation modelling was used to test the research model.FindingsStructural equation modelling results support the proposition that servant leadership helps in discouraging workplace bullying, both directly and indirectly, in the presence of employee resilience as a mediator. However, employee proactive personality moderates this process, such that the association between resilience and workplace bullying is stronger for individuals with high proactive personality.Research limitations/implicationsThis study's findings illuminate the strong potential of servant leadership for managing workplace bullying. This potential is attributed to positive role modelling in the workplace, which may assist in building followers' resilience. This study provides evidence to support the importance of leadership in the process by which employees develop better psychological resources to combat bullying at work.Originality/valueThis is the first study that examines the direct relationship between servant leadership and bullying at work. In addition, this study introduced the mediating effect of resilience and the moderating effect of proactive personality on this relationship.

At the start of 2020, no one had predicted the challenging effects that the COVID-19 pandemic was going to have on higher education institutions. Research indicates that leaders in higher education institutions were ill-prepared to lead during the pandemic. This study explored U.S. higher education institutions officials’ servant leadership behavior and the level of readiness for the COVID-19 pandemic. This study employed a cross-sectional study design with a quantitative approach. The results show that all institution officials lacked in the ‘Leading the Way’ measure of Crisis Leadership, and the overall measure of crisis leadership did not show a significant difference between institutions. Furthermore, all servant leadership behaviors (altruistic calling, emotional healing, wisdom, persuasive mapping, and organizational stewardship) significantly predict the officials’ level of readiness to the pandemic. This line of inquiry informs a new direction in the theory related to servant leadership and crisis leadership readiness.

This article presents an integrated construct of servant leadership derived from a review of the literature. Subscale items were developed to measure 11 potential dimensions of servant leadership: calling, listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, growth, and community building. Data from 80 leaders and 388 raters were used to test the internal consistency, confirm factor structure, and assess convergent, divergent, and predictive validity. Results produced five servant leadership factors—altruistic calling, emotional healing, persuasive mapping, wisdom, and organizational stewardship—with significant relations to transformational leadership, leader-member exchange, extra effort, satisfaction, and organizational effectiveness. Strong factor structures and good performance in all validity criteria indicate that the instrument offers value for future research.

With the emergence of the knowledge-based and service economies, the demand for service leadership is obvious. However, there are few models specifically designed for service leadership. Besides, most of the leadership models developed for university students are elitist leadership models, assuming only elites can be effective leaders. To promote service leadership in the higher education sector in Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Institute of Service Leadership and Management (HKI-SLAM) proposed the service leadership model. In this chapter, the basic qualities of effective service leaders are highlighted with reference to the attributes of student well-being commonly proposed in different student well-being models. Besides presenting evidence on the linkage between service leadership attributes and well-being, the chapter also examines the concordance of service leadership attributes and student well-being attributes described in different models. It is argued that through nurturing service leadership qualities in university students, their well-being is also enhanced.

PurposeThe study of women business founders provides an opportunity to determine their unique leadership characteristics. Starting a business may be a way for women business owners to be authentic and create more people-centered businesses. Servant leadership’s gender integrative attributes where both agentic and communal behaviors are valued may be more congruent and reflective of the leadership behaviors of women entrepreneurs. Recently, the motivation of compassionate love was theorized to be an antecedent to servant leadership and, it is argued, exists in conjunction with authenticity. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate compassionate love, authenticity and servant leadership and determine whether they exist in the behaviors of founding female business owners.Design/methodology/approachThis qualitative research study used summative content analysis of telephone interviews conducted with 12 women business owners of professional service firms in four US states to determine whether these women’s motivations, traits and behaviors were consistent with the compassionate love servant leadership model and whether authenticity was the cornerstone of servant leadership.FindingsThe analyses found that these women revealed a strong authenticity orientation as they enacted a compassionate love servant leadership style within their businesses. Themes that emerged from the study were agency, calling, humility, trust and respect, self-development, stewardship, authenticity and providing direction. The study revealed support for some of the characteristics associated with compassionate love servant leadership and two characteristics which were unique to this study.Research limitations/implicationsAs a qualitative study of 12 individuals, these findings may not be generalizable beyond the four US states of professional service enterprises of women business founders. Future research should test the full servant leadership model of women business owners on a larger group of business founders and the sub-themes where little support exists.Practical implicationsThe more gender integrative style of compassionate love servant leadership may be beneficial for women owners to employ as business leaders.Originality/valueThis research revealed support for a variation of compassionate love servant leadership model. The resulting servant leadership model herein was a mixture of agentic and communal leadership motivations, traits and behaviors useful to women business founders. Behaviors of authenticity were found to complement compassionate love. These women were able to extend the boundaries of what it means to be a leader and incorporate behaviors associated with both their gender and leadership roles, thus expanding their ability to successfully empower and equip themselves to navigate barriers unique to women leaders.

Reviewed by: Making Room in the Clinic: Nurse Practitioners and the Evolution of Modern Health Care Susan L. Smith Julie Fairman . Making Room in the Clinic: Nurse Practitioners and the Evolution of Modern Health Care. Critical Issues in Health and Medicine. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2008. xiii + 255 pp. Ill. $45.95 (978-0-8135-4319-2). In the 1980s, I had an excellent health care provider, a nurse practitioner who worked at a health maintenance organization, or HMO, in Madison, Wisconsin. Ida Gear was in high demand among many of the women I knew because of her health care skills and caring approach. Thus, I was delighted to learn more about the history of this health care profession in Julie Fairman's new book on the history of nurse practitioners. Making Room in the Clinic: Nurse Practitioners and the Evolution of Modern Health Care not only documents the development of a new type of health care worker but sets it clearly within the wider context of nursing and medicine in the 1960s and 1970s. Fairman's history of the nurse practitioner movement adds an important dimension to scholarship on health care in the post–World War II era, a period of increasing interest among historians. Her insights into professional health relations illuminate some of the central themes in the history of modern health care. Fairman's study of nurse practitioners is attentive to the multiple perspectives regarding how best to provide optimum patient care. In particular, she analyzes the [End Page 235] ideas and concerns of doctors and organized medicine, including the American Medical Association, as well as those of nurses and organized nursing, including the American Nurses Association. Fairman demonstrates that the nurse practitioner movement was the product of nurse–physician relations and attempts at cooperation in both individual clinical practices and larger policy discussions. She shows that the nurse practitioner could be part of a collaborative health care practice with shared responsibility and equity among health professionals. In one especially interesting aspect of her study, Fairman draws on gender analysis to analyze the separate but related paths of nurse practitioners and physician assistants. Physician assistants, most of whom were men, emerged as complementary health workers within the field of medicine. Nurse practitioners, most of whom were women, were specialists with advanced training within the field of nursing. The two types of health care providers performed similar tasks and had similar degrees of autonomy in their work in this borderland between medicine and nursing. However, there were differences, as men became "less-than doctors" and women became "more-than nurses." Physician assistants were men looking for ways to use their health care skills without undertaking the lengthy physician training. Many of them had had military experience as medics and thus sought a parallel profession in civilian life. Nurse practitioners were women looking for more training and ways to expand their roles. Many of them had worked in areas of nursing that offered opportunities for specialization and independent work, such as public health nursing. Fairman's study of the coalition efforts of nurses and physicians in the 1960s and 1970s shows how and why the nurse practitioner movement emerged, but it also raises questions for future research. For example, sprinkled throughout the book are references to the fact that most nurse practitioners were white. Although Fairman does not analyze how "whiteness" shaped the emergence of this health care field, her work provides an excellent starting point for scholars. In addition, research is needed on how and why racialized minority women were drawn to the field and with what results. For instance, the Wisconsin nurse practitioner Ida Gear was an African American woman, and there were no doubt others across the nation. In sum, Fairman provides the first comprehensive investigation of the history of nurse practitioners and in the process reveals much about the complexities of professional health relations, clinical authority, and specialization. Her work makes the case for the benefits of collaboration when there is shared power between nurses and doctors and shows that although it is not easy, it can be done. [End Page 236] Susan L. Smith University of Alberta, Canada Copyright © 2009 The...

Servant leadership has been identified as extremely important for organizational performance and success; therefore, much focus is placed on developing and maintaining leaders’ positive attitudes and behaviors toward their subordinates. Different servant models have been put out by earlier scholars. Nevertheless, only a small number of studies have focused on employee voice as a key precursor to servant leadership. The goal of this study is to look at the impacts of servant leadership style on employee voice by focusing on the mediating role of trust in a leader. Time-lagged data were gathered from 336 employees of small- and medium-sized enterprises in Pakistan. The perceived servant leadership style was positively and significantly associated with employees’voices mediated by trust in leaders. This study upgrades the comprehension of the components underlying the servant leadership and employee voice model by recognizing the intervening role of trust in the leader. Nonetheless, the survey design was not longitudinal, which restricts the study’s capacity to affirm causality. The results of this study acknowledge that servant leadership style and trust in leaders can promote constructive employee voice behavior. This study addresses the unproven mediating procedure of the link between servant leadership style and employee voice and offers new bearings for servant leadership and employee voice research, which, to the best of our knowledge, has not been explored before.

IN RECENT YEARS, NUMEROUS ALLIED HEALTH PROFESsions have adopted or are planning to adopt clinical or practice doctorates. Although some have transitioned to an entry-level doctorate (eg, pharmacy and physical therapy) and others (eg, nursing) recognize the doctorate as an advanced practice degree, the professions’ goals are the same—to replace the master’s degree with a professionspecific doctoral degree. Allied health care clinicians with these degrees now practice, or will soon practice, as “doctors” alongside their physician colleagues. These clinicians function as competent and effective members of the health care team and had done so before obtaining doctoral degrees. So why make the move to a doctorate? Those in favor argue that a doctorate improves professional image, promotes more autonomous practice, and serves as an appropriate response to advancing technologies and the increasing complexity of health care. Others argue that doctorates may confuse patients, that they represent “degree creep,” and that doctoral degrees are sought largely for professional status rather than for issues related to clinical competence and market demand. The additional tuition costs associated with doctoral degrees and the perception that doctorates are prestigious and will attract students create incentives for universities to offer the degree. The added cost, however, has the potential to adversely affect recruitment of low-income and minority students. In addition, requirements for doctoral degrees lengthen the time in school, vary from program to program, and have not been proven to enhance students’ clinical abilities. At a time when the country is working to keep up with increasing demands of health care, do the perceived benefits of a doctorate justify the additional expense, time, and delay in getting clinicians into the workforce? The physician assistant (PA) profession has said “no.” In March 2009, PA organizations conducted a PA Clinical Doctorate Summit that involved clinically practicing PAs, PA educators, students, army PAs, representatives of other allied health professions, workforce experts, and allopathic and osteopathic physicians. Summit recommendations, which also reflect the views of a majority of surveyed PAs, express opposition to an entry-level PA clinical doctorate and officially endorse the master’s degree as the entrylevel and terminal degree for the profession. The recommendations include support for PAs who choose to pursue postgraduate training beyond the master’s degree but limit this support to non–PA-specific doctoral degrees. Discussions during the PA Clinical Doctorate Summit revolved around a number of issues, including the effects a PA doctorate could have on the profession’s relationship with physicians (eg, would physicians perceive a doctorate as a move toward independent practice?), the additional cost for students, and the potential for the degree to diminish the profession’s diversity. Final justifications for concluding that a PA-specific doctorate is unnecessary were “the length and cost of the current educational model has resulted in a responsive accessible PA workforce . . . and has adapted over 40 years to provide high quality, cost-effective, patientcentered care,” and that “both physicians and PAs practice in the domain of medicine therefore the entry-level doctorate for the practice of medicine is the MD or DO.” Despite the final recommendations, significant pressure for PAs to transition to a doctoral degree persists, especially as other clinicians work to expand their prestige and scope of practice. Some leaders in the PA profession have suggested that the decision not to endorse a clinical doctorate “ . . . may be tantamount to committing professional suicide.” They argue that physicians’ and the public’s perception that nonphysician clinicians with doctoral degrees are better educated, favors nurse practitioners, and will cause PAs to become marginalized, weakening the profession’s status within the health care community. Physicians practicing today may be unaware that physicians established the PA model of education in the 1960s to train individuals with prior health care experience to rapidly meet the needs of medically underserved areas. Currently, most applicants accepted to PA school have a bachelor’s degree, including required coursework in the basic and behavioral sciences, and 3 years of health care experience. PA education, which is modeled on medical education, averages 27 months in length and typically includes a didactic year of instruction in the sciences and clinical medi-

Measurement invariance of the five-factor Servant Leadership Questionnaire between female and male K-12 principals was tested using multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. A sample of 956 principals (56.9% were females and 43.1% were males) was analysed in this study. The hierarchical multi-step measurement invariance test supported the measurement invariance of the five-factor model across gender. Latent factor means were compared between females and males when measurement invariance was established. Results showed that females were significantly higher than males on emotional healing, wisdom, persuasive mapping and organisational stewardship, and they were not statistically different on altruistic calling.

Problem. The research of Wong and Page (2003) has suggested that no denominational church leadership models utilize a biblical servant leadership model. Most denominational leadership models utilize some form of an authoritarian hierarchical model. This suggests the need for a curriculum that can assist a denominational leadership team to transition to a biblical servant leadership model. Methodology. This project utilized a qualitative methodology. A curriculum was developed utilizing assessments, seminars, coaching, and group feedback in order to create an environment to transition to a biblical servant leadership model for the Potomac Conference ADCOM team. Results. There were seven members of the ADCOM team for the Potomac Conference that participated in this project. The results of the Revised Servant Leadership Profile at the beginning of the project and then again at the conclusion of the seminar suggested that the participants did not have a cohesive understanding of biblical servant leadership to start with. The group feedback session suggested that the seminars and coaching provided the key basis for an understanding of a biblical servant leadership model for the ADCOM team. This session also demonstrated the need for more emphasis on spiritual development, a theology of emotional intelligence and power and authority, and the ingredients necessary to create a culture to transition to a biblical servant leadership model. Conclusions. This study demonstrates the need for a well-defined biblical servant leadership model that can be used within the structure of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. The capacity to lead from a biblical servant leadership model brings clarity to the (a) mission and vision, (b) the importance of effective teams, (c) the significance of healthy systems and organizational culture, and (d) the need for a deep relationship with Jesus Christ.