Design Code Analysis of Fire Protection Facilities in Hydrogen Refueling Stations

The current situation of self-built houses by villagers is prevalent in rural areas, where many villagers construct their own residential dwellings based on their personal needs and economic circumstances. These self-built houses are typically constructed using basic materials and traditional building techniques, often without adherence to strict building regulations and standards. As a result of the lack of professional knowledge and technical guidance, the structural integrity and safety of these houses are often compromised. In addition, the lack of firefighting facilities and fire prevention measures further increase the risk of fire accidents. This situation contributes to a higher incidence of fires in rural areas, posing a significant threat to the lives and assets of villagers. Therefore, it becomes imperative to improve the current state of self-built houses by villagers. Strengthening fire safety awareness and implementing robust fire prevention measures are vital in this regard. This paper aims to summarize the challenges involved in fire protection design for renovating rural buildings. Additionally, it proposes fire protection design principles specifically for the commercial transformation of self-built houses by villagers. By analyzing real-world engineering cases, this study puts forth specific fire protection measures concerning fire rescue, fire control zones (groups), evacuation design, and fire systems. To ensure the fire safety of these buildings, special fire protection design methods are employed. The effectiveness of the proposed fire protection measures are validated through the use of FDS fire and smoke numerical simulation analysis software and Pathfinder evacuation simulation software, ensuring the fire safety of the buildings. The results show that the available safe evacuation time that can be provided by this scenario is 1200 s as calculated by the FDS simulation, and the necessary safe evacuation time is less than the available safe evacuation time in case of a fire on the first floor of this building, and the safe evacuation of the people can be guaranteed. This study can provide a valuable resource for architects, engineers, and decision makers to implement effective fire protection measures during commercial remodeling of village-owned houses.

Environmental and energy security concerns are driving federal agencies to evaluate alternative domestically produced energy. Among the various technologies studied, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) launched a five-year demonstration project named “Controlled Hydrogen Fleet and Infrastructure Demonstration and Validation Project” to investigate the feasibility of hydrogen as a transportation fuel. To achieve the objective, the DOE selected a team of industry leaders to design, construct and operate a system consisting of various hydrogen fueling stations and fleet of fuel cell electric vehicles. One of the selected teams consists of Chevron Technology Ventures Inc., Hyundai American Motor Co., UTC Fuel Cells, and Southern California-Edison (SCE). Each team member is responsible for a key task: Chevron — design and build the hydrogen fueling station, Hyundai and UTC — build the Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles, and SCE — site-owner, characterize and operate the system in a real world setting.The hydrogen fueling station was built at the corporate offices of SCE in Rosemead, California. This station is capable of maintaining a minimum storage capacity of 60 kg, a daily production and dispensing capacity of 40kg, a fueling pressure of 5,000PSI, and a maximum vehicle fueling time of five minutes. As an electric utility company, SCE will perform a detailed power analysis of the station and determined key functions, such as system power demand, efficiency, and reliability. Prior to fleet assessment, SCE characterized the performance of three fuel cell electric vehicles at its EV Technical Center in Pomona, California. This characterization included both freeway and urban drive-range testing. In addition, the vehicles will be deployed to various sites throughout the SCE service territory for fleet assessments. Among the various test sites will be Palm Springs, designated as the hot-climate site.This project demonstrates the ability of hydrogen to be a possible source of sustainable domestic transportation energy. The lessons learned in this project provide valuable knowledge to the partners by conducting project tasks, such as permitting, code compliance, vehicle characterizations, fleet assessment, and infrastructure installation.

Hydrogen station prognostics and health monitoring model

RELEVANCE. In the modern world, on the verge of global climate change, the search and implementation of alternative energy sources become particularly significant. Hydrogen energy is one of the most promising directions, offering a revolutionary approach to the decarbonization of various industrial sectors. The development of technologies related to the production, storage, and use of hydrogen opens new horizons for creating a sustainable and environmentally friendly energy infrastructure.OBJECTIVE. To review the technological state of hydrogen refueling stations (HRS), analyze the latest global trends and developments in this area, identify factors contributing to the efficiency of HRS components, and present thermodynamic principles of hydrogen fuel use. To outline the main problems associated with the need for widespread implementation of hydrogen infrastructure and to identify potential directions for their resolution. To develop suggestions for creating a modular layout of a container-type hydrogen station, which will allow a flexible approach to organizing hydrogen infrastructure with the possibility of rapid scaling and adaptation under various operating conditions.METHODS. Based on the use of literature data. The method of prototyping an autonomous hydrogen refueling station was used, and mathematical calculations of thermodynamic processes occurring in the components of HRS were conducted.RESULTS. Studies in the field of technological state of stations have been examined and systematized, and development trends have been identified. The main components involved in the operation of a hydrogen station are described. Thermodynamic processes of hydrogen fuel use that contribute to a significant reduction in energy consumption of hydrogen stations have been investigated.CONCLUSION. The hydrogen station combines efficient conversion of hydrogen into electricity, minimization of emissions, energy independence, and flexibility in energy storage. Determining the optimal operating parameters of HRS equipment based on the thermodynamics of processes, considering the specifics of temperature regimes of Russian regions, is important for reducing costs and increasing the energy efficiency of hydrogen fuel systems. The proposed structure of the container-type HRS is an optimal platform for subsequent modernizations and innovations in the field of hydrogen technologies.

In 1989, a research project entitled, “Fire Safety and Engineering” was conducted at the Warren Centre for Advanced Engineering, the University of Sydney, and involved 70 leading researchers and engineers from around Australia. It was found that fire safety and protection facilities constructed in accordance with current Australian regulatory requirements are a significant component of the cost of many buildings in this country. The project team concluded that with the development of systematic approaches to building fire safety and protection design, based on risk assessment models and fire-engineering design techniques, substantial cost savings can be made while achieving satisfactory levels of life safety. There is an urgent need for a greater understanding by designers and regulatory officials of fire phenomena, human behavior, and fire engineering techniques.

Recent progress with fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) has focused attention on hydrogen infrastructure as a critical commercialization barrier. With major automakers focused on 2015 as a target timeframe for global FCEV commercialization, the window of opportunity is short for establishing a sufficient network of hydrogen stations to support large-volume vehicle deployments. This reportdescribes expert feedback on the market readiness of hydrogen infrastructure technology from two activities.

Measuring modified glass bulb sprinkler thermal response in plunge and compartment fire experiments

The hydrogen energy industry is rapidly developing, positioning hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) as critical infrastructure for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Within these stations, hydrogen compressors serve as the core equipment, whose performance and reliability directly determine the overall system’s economy and safety. This article systematically reviews the working principles, structural features, and application status of mechanical hydrogen compressors with a focus on three prominent types based on reciprocating motion principles: the diaphragm compressor, the hydraulically driven piston compressor, and the ionic liquid compressor. The study provides a detailed analysis of performance bottlenecks, material challenges, thermal management issues, and volumetric efficiency loss mechanisms for each compressor type. Furthermore, it summarizes recent technical optimizations and innovations. Finally, the paper identifies current research gaps, particularly in reliability, hydrogen embrittlement, and intelligent control under high-temperature and high-pressure conditions. It also proposes future technology development pathways and standardization recommendations, aiming to serve as a reference for further R&D and the industrialization of hydrogen compression technology.

Modern homes, filled with plastics and foams, can spiral rapidly into flashover within minutes, blocking safe escape and placing the lives of you and your loved ones in peril. The quest to make our homes more comfortable has inadvertently introduced fire risks – synthetic furnishings and furniture, open plan designs, and lightweight construction all helping to stoke the rapid development of a modern home fire. Thanks to significantly increased fuel loads, our modern homes burn at a fierce pace, a stark contrast to the double-brick-and-hardwood-timber constructions of previous generations. The result is that people now have as little as two to three minutes to escape a burning building safely, before their lives are critically threatened by heat and smoke. Each year in Australia there are around 64 preventable fire fatalities – a ‘diffused disaster’ of one here, another there, maybe more than one, or a family. And yet there is a tried, tested, and trusted solution: automatic home fire sprinkler systems. Unlike smoke alarms, which can only warn of danger, home fire sprinklers actively fight the fire. Each unobtrusive concealed sprinkler head in a residential system can sense a tell-tale rise in temperature, releasing a spray of water that directly tackles the fire at its point of ignition – and quickly. Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition Australia (HFSCA) is leading a funded research program to develop a safe, reliable, cost-effective and fit-for-purpose home sprinkler system designed for Australian Class 1 homes. By tapping into the expertise within respected industry, fire engineering and research partners, HFSCA is developing the compelling case for the National Construction Code to mandate fire sprinklers in new Class 1 builds.

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory's Scenario Evaluation and Regionalization Analysis (SERA) model estimates the number, size, and locations of hydrogen refueling stations that satisfy the fuel demand from fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and the hydrogen supply requirements to meet such a demand in terms of hydrogen production plants and delivery infrastructure. SERA simulates the systemwide cost-optimal evolution of hydrogen refueling infrastructure, providing insights that reduce the informational and financial risks associated with infrastructure investment decisions and helping accelerate the adoption of FCEVs. This report describes the SERA model's demand-side and refueling infrastructure buildout algorithms, and it also illustrates use of the model for simulating hydrogen refueling stations deployment scenarios using as an example the recent H2USA national hydrogen infrastructure report.

Integration of a light mobility urban scale hydrogen refuelling station for cycling purposes in the transportation market

Chapter 18 - Hydrogen refueling stations/infrastructure

Spatial configuration of fire protection for historical streets in China using space syntax

Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. (Air Products) is reporting on the results of a DOE-funded program to develop and validate Advanced Hydrogen Fueling Station hydrogen tube trailers to support hydrogen and fuel cell market applications. The project involved the engineering design and development of a new composite over-wrapped pressure vessel to increase the pressure capability of tube trailers to deliver hydrogen to greater than 8500 psi (586 bar). The new composite over-wrapped pressure vessel tube trailer was expected to provide improved delivery technology and reduce the cost of transporting hydrogen from central hydrogen production sources. The project aimed to meet or exceed DOE’s 2020 delivery targets for tube trailer hydrogen distribution. A gated approach was taken for the project, with early project Go/No-Go decision points. Specific goals for this four-stage product development project included: Preliminary Study, Modeling, and Analysis: Complete a preliminary design analysis and cost viability of a >8500 psi (586 bar) hydrogen storage vessel with an appropriate frame and chassis configuration for a complete trailer to US DOT requirements; Develop New Tube Size for >8500 psi (586 bar) Vessel: Fabricate tubes for test units, perform testing, and submit test results for a DOT Special Permit; Design, fabricate, and test a delivery trailer unit; Deploy the delivery trailer to hydrogen stations and collect data. Work conducted under DE-EE0006524 established costs for US DOT Type III vessels at 8500 psi (586 bar), 12500 psi (862 bar), and 14000 psi (965 bar) with manufactured water volumes up to 375 liters. Trailer module designs were established for the maximum US DOT design limits and for Air Products’ design limit of a 40-foot trailer length that addresses California hydrogen fueling station ingress and egress operating constraints. Conceptual trailer designs were not capable of achieving the DOE 2020 capacity and cost targets, but they did exceed the DOE pressure target of 500 bar. Based on new trailer cost and simulated operating performance, the 8500 psi (586 bar) new trailer design is not feasible in comparison to Air Products’ DOT-approved 7500 psi (520 bar) trailer design in operation today. Also, the project was expected to incur significantly higher product development costs associated with new US DOT vessel development and approval. Alternative trailer design concepts were explored that included 700 bar compression-less mobile fueling that could be promising for early-market hydrogen infrastructure fueling station placement and development and niche military applications. Due to the economic and budget challenges identified in the feasibility phase of the program, Air Products, in agreement with the Department of Energy, decided to terminate this development program.

This paper presents an investigation on solvent-borne intumescent flame-retardant coatings that can provide good bonding strength, water resistance and fire protection to the steel substrate. The fire protection performance and characterisations of the coatings were investigated by using the Bunsen burner test, thermogravimetry analysis, field emission scanning electron microscope, static immersion test and Instron Micro Tester. It was found that the fire protection and foam structure of the coating significantly improved by adding the combination of Mg(OH)2 and TiO2 flame-retardant fillers to the flame-retardant additives and acrylic binder. The formation of uniform foam structure and reaction of the coating which decompose into voluminous and multi-cellular char layers with thermal insulation properties contribute an important fire protection to the steel substrate from reaching its critical temperature. However, the combination of [Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2] flame-retardant fillers to the flame-retardant additives and epoxy binder led to maximum adhesion strength. The improvement in the bonding properties of the coating to the metal surface was attributed to the effective [Mg(OH)2 and TiO2] fillers/epoxy binder interface adhesion. Hence, the findings of this study reveal that the selection of appropriate combination of binders and flame-retardant fillers strongly influenced the fire protection, water resistance and mechanical properties of intumescent coatings.