Developing a new shock‐collar design for safe and efficient use on wild wolves

We evaluated the accuracy and precision of tooth wear for aging gray wolves (Canis lupus) from Alaska, Minnesota, and Ontario based on 47 known-age or known-minimum-age skulls. Estimates of age using tooth wear and a commercial cementum annuli-aging service were useful for wolves up to 14 years old. The precision of estimates from cementum annuli was greater than estimates from tooth wear, but tooth wear estimates are more applicable in the field. We tended to overestimate age by 1-2 years and occasionally by 3 or 4 years. The commercial service aged young wolves with cementum annuli to within ±1 year of actual age, but under estimated ages of wolves ≥9 years old by 1-3 years. No differences were detected in tooth wear patterns for wild wolves from Alaska, Minnesota, and Ontario, nor between captive and wild wolves. Tooth wear was not appropriate for aging wolves with an underbite that prevented normal wear or severely broken and missing teeth.

Species in the family Canidae occupy different spatial ecological niches, and some (e.g., wolf) can be kept in zoos. The gut microbiome may differ among various wild and captive canids. Therefore, we compared the gut microbiomes of wild canids (wolf, red fox, and corsac fox) in the Hulun Lake area, captive wolves, and domestic dogs in different regions using metagenomic data. A random forest analysis revealed significant enrichment for bacterial species producing short-chain fatty acids and the thermogenesis pathway (ko04714) in the gut microbiome of wild wolf, potentially providing sufficient energy for adaptation to a wide range of spatial ecological niches. The significantly enriched bacterial species and functional pathways in the gut microbiome of corsac foxes were related to physiological stability and adaptation to arid environments. Alpha diversity of carbohydrate-active enzymes in the gut microbiome was higher in the red fox than in the corsac fox and wild wolf, which may be related to the abundance of plant seeds (containing carbohydrates) in their diets (red foxes inhabit seed-rich willow bosk habitats). However, the influence of host genetic factors cannot be excluded, and further experimental studies are needed to verify the study results. In addition, captive environments drove similarity in carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) and virulence factors (VFs) in the gut microbiomes of captive wolf and domestic dog, and increased the diversity of CAZymes and VFs in the gut microbiome of captive wolf. Increased VFs diversity may increase the pathogenic potential of the gut microbiome in captive wolves. Therefore, it is necessary to continue monitoring the health status of captive wolves and develop appropriate management strategies.

Animal social play represents an important tool for self- and social-assessment purposes during the juvenile phase. Nevertheless, this activity may continue into adulthood as well providing immediate benefits to the playmates. In this study, I investigated the dynamics of adult play in a wolf colony hosted at the Pistoia Zoo (Italy). The study wolves performed social play to a greater extent compared to solitary play. Play distribution was not affected by relationship quality (measured by body contact and agonistic support frequencies) and aggression levels. Probably, in wolves other behavioural strategies are employed for strengthening inter-individual relationships and reducing conflicts among fellows. Play was distributed throughout the entire group independently of the sex of playmates. The absence of sexual-dimorphism in play may be linked to the fact that in the wolf pack males and females share the same roles and behavioural repertoire. Rank distance between conspecifics negatively correlated with play distribution: by playing wolves with closest ranking positions tested each other for acquiring information on skills of possible competitor and gaining hierarchical advantage over it. Finally, in agreement with previous studies, my findings showed that wolves significantly reduced their playful activity during contests of high conflict of interests such as mating period and feeding time.

Background/Objectives: The domestication of the grey wolf (Canis lupus) and subsequent creation of modern dog breeds have significantly shaped the genetic landscape of domestic canines. This study investigates the genomic effects of hybridization and breeding management practices in two hybrid wolfdog breeds: the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog (CSW) and the Saarloos Wolfdog (SAW). Methods: We analyzed the genomes of 46 CSWs and 20 SAWs, comparing them to 12 German Shepherds (GSHs) and 20 wolves (WLFs), which served as their ancestral populations approximately 70-90 years ago. Results: Our findings highlight that hybridization can increase genetic variability and mitigate the effects of inbreeding, as evidenced by the observed heterozygosity levels in both wolfdog breeds. However, the SAW genome revealed a higher coefficient of inbreeding and longer runs of homozygosity compared to the CSW, reflecting significant inbreeding during its development. Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components and fixation index analyses demonstrate that the CSW exhibits closer genetic proximity to the GSH than the SAW, likely due to differences in the numbers of GSHs used during their creation. Maximum likelihood clustering further confirmed clear genetic differentiation between these hybrid breeds and their respective ancestors, while shared ancestral polymorphism was detectable in all populations. Conclusions: These results highlight the role of controlled hybridization with captive-bred wolves and peculiar breeding strategies in shaping the genetic structure of wolfdog breeds. To ensure the long-term genetic health of these breeds, it is recommended to promote adequate and sustainable breeding practices to maintain genetic diversity, minimize inbreeding, and incorporate the careful selection of unrelated individuals from diverse lineages, while avoiding additional, uncontrolled crossings with wild wolves.

Intestinal parasites associated with human and animal waste utilization in Plateau State, Nigeria.

The dog was the first domesticated animal. Its derivation from grey wolvesCanis lupusis important to the study of mammalian domestication, and wolf domestication is an active area of investigation. Recent popular books have promoted a hypothesis that wolves domesticated themselves as opposed to the earliest hypothesis that featured pup collection, adoption, and artificial selection. Continuing research has produced a greater understanding of wolf ecology and behaviour, including new insights into the wolf’s interaction with humans. Several characteristics make the wolf conducive to domestication: its sociality, catholic diet, excellent individual and cultural memory, inbreeding tolerance, varied personalities, and adaptable lifestyle. The wolf’s fear of humans is the main impediment and that alone is a factor strongly disfavouring the self‐selection hypothesis. However, collecting young pups from dens and raising them would foster their socialising with humans as pack members. Neither hypothesis explains how wolves undergoing domestication were separated reproductively from their wild relatives, an important condition for domestication. We combine information from the literature with information from our own research on wild wolves, archaeology, and canid morphology. We explain how pup collection and deliberate or incidental selection and encouragement to breed with similarly raised wolves could keep incipient dogs separated reproductively from wild relatives. The key is humans regularly feeding the wolves and keeping only those able to live harmoniously with humans. Well‐fed, human‐dependent wolves would remain near their food supply and in the company of humans, thus increasing their bonds to humans andvice versa. Outbreeding with wild wolves would thus be avoided. Generation after generation of these human‐fed, raised, and selected wolves would become increasingly dependent on humans and shaped by them. The pup‐adoption hypothesis presented here is more in keeping with basic wolf ecology and behaviour than the self‐domestication hypothesis.

Molecular survey of tick-borne pathogens reveals a high prevalence and low genetic variability of Hepatozoon canis in free-ranging grey wolves (Canis lupus) in Germany

The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is one of the most widely distributed terrestrial mammals, and its distribution and ecology in Europe and North America are largely well described. However, the distribution of grey wolf in southern China is still highly controversial. Several well-known western literatures stated that there are no grey wolves in southern China, while the presence of grey wolf across China has been indicated in A Guide to the Mammals of China, published by Princeton University Press. It is essential to solve this discrepancy since dogs may have originated from grey wolfs in southern China. Therefore, we systematically investigated Chinese literatures about wild animal surveys and identified more than 100 articles and books that included information of the distribution of grey wolves in China. We also surveyed the collections of three Chinese natural museums and found 26 grey wolf skins specimens collected across China. Moreover, we investigated the fossil records of wolf in China and identified 25 archaeological sites with wolf remains including south China. In conclusion, with the comprehensive summary of Chinese literatures, museum specimens and fossil records, we demonstrate that grey wolves does distribute across all parts of the Chinese mainland, including the most southern parts of China.

Electronic training collars have previously been used to condition captive predators not to attack livestock and other prey, but the use of aversive collars in actual management situations involving wild predators has not been scientifically evaluated and published. We adapted and tested commercially available dog training collars in an actual management situation involving wild wolves. Because we temporarily held wolves in captivity, we also discuss the use of pens as a tool that provides management flexibility. Three packs that had been implicated in killing livestock were held at a pen facility at the Flying D Ranch near Bozeman, Montana. Wolves from 2 packs were used in training collar experiments. We ran trials using bison calves, domestic cow calves, and hides to test equipment and the behavioral conditioning paradigm. In our program, we were unable to condition wolves not to attack livestock because of a variety of logistical and behavioral reasons. We concluded that temporarily holding wolves at a small, moderately accessible facility is of limited use for determining the utility of aversive conditioning as a wolf predation management technique. More research is necessary to effectively apply electronic training collars to wolf management. However, we determined that maintaining holding pens for wolves provides flexibility to managers in translocation efforts. Because wolves in our studies survived to reproduce, our collaborative efforts have made a significant contribution to wolf recovery.

The available scientific literature was reviewed to assess the taxonomic standing of North American wolves, including subspecies of the gray wolf, Canis lupus. The recent scientific proposal that the eastern wolf, C. l. lycaon, is not a subspecies of gray wolf, but a full species, Canis lycaon, is well-supported by both morphological and genetic data. This species' range extends westward to Minnesota, and it hybridizes with gray wolves where the two species are in contact in eastern Canada and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Genetic data support a close relationship between eastern wolf and red wolf Canis rufus, but do not support the proposal that they are the same species; it is more likely that they evolved independently from different lineages of a common ancestor with coyotes. The genetic distinctiveness of the Mexican wolf Canis lupus baileyi supports its recognition as a subspecies. The available genetic and morphometric data do not provide clear support for the recognition of the Arctic wolf Canis lupus arctos, but the available genetic data are almost entirely limited to one group of genetic markers (microsatellite DNA) and are not definitive on this question. Recognition of the northern timber wolf Canis lupus occidentalis and the plains wolf Canis lupus nubilus as subspecies is supported by morphological data and extensive studies of microsatellite DNA variation where both subspecies are in contact in Canada. The wolves of coastal areas in southeastern Alaska and British Columbia should be assigned to C. lupus nubilus. There is scientific support for the taxa recognized here, but delineation of exact geographic boundaries presents challenges. Rather than sharp boundaries between taxa, boundaries should generally be thought of as intergrade zones of variable width.

We examined the head of the gray wolf (Canis lupus) using MRI methods. Although the arising surface of the M. temporalis was not so enlarged in the frontal bone, the small frontal bone did not disturb the M. temporalis from occupying the lateral space of the frontal area in the gray wolf as in the domesticated dog. In the gray wolf, it is suggested that the M. temporalis may not be well-developed in terms of size of arising area, but in the thickness of running bundles. We suggest that the dog has changed the three-dimensional plan of the M. temporalis during the domestication and that the M. temporalis has developed a large arising surface in the frontal bone and lost the thickness of belly in the frontal area in accordance with the enlargement of the frontal bone and the increase in brain size.

We determined a relationship between biomass consumed per collectable scat and prey weight. We fed prey items (ranging from rodent (0.75 kg) to juvenile cattle (65 kg), covering the normal weight range for prey of the Indian wolf (Canis lupus papllipes)) to groups of two to five captive wolves in 13 feeding trials at Sakkarbaug Zoo, Junagadh, India. The prey biomass eaten per collectable scat (Y) increased as the live body weight of prey (X) increased (Y=0.0148X+0.135; R2=0.87; F=75.8; df=1,11; P<0.001). The slope of our regression (0.015; tropical domestic prey) did not differ from that reported by Floyd et al. [1978] (temperate wild prey, P=0.17); therefore, we pooled the data from both studies and derived a combined regression (Y=0.0182X+0.217; R2=0.77; df=1,20; P<0.001). In addition to the widely accepted explanation that the surface‐area‐to‐mass ratio is larger for small prey, we found that this relationship reflected the fact that percent utilization was greater, and digestibility was lower for smaller prey. Zoo Biol 23:513–520, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

BackgroundDominance is one of the most pervasive concepts in the study of wolf social behaviour but recently its validity has been questioned. For some authors, the bonds between members of wolf families are better described as parent-offspring relationships and the concept of dominance should be used just to evaluate the social dynamics of non-familial captive pack members (e.g., Mech & Cluff, 2010). However, there is a dearth of studies investigating dominance relationships and its correlates in wolf family packs.MethodsHere, we applied a combination of the most commonly used quantitative methods to evaluate the dominance relationships in a captive family pack of 19 Arctic wolves.ResultsWe found a significant linear and completely transitive hierarchy based on the direction of submissive behaviours and found that dominance relationships were not influenced by the competitive contexts (feeding vs. non-feeding context). A significant linear hierarchy also emerges amongst siblings once the breeding pair (the two top-ranking individuals) is removed from analyses. Furthermore, results suggest that wolves may use greeting behaviour as a formal signal of subordination. Whereas older wolves were mostly dominant over younger ones, no clear effect of sex was found. However, frequency of agonistic (submissive, dominant and aggressive) behaviours was higher between female–female and male–male dyads than female–male dyads and sex-separated linear hierarchies showed a stronger linearity than the mixed one. Furthermore, dominance status was conveyed through different behavioural categories during intra-sexual and inter-sexual interactions.DiscussionCurrent results highlight the importance of applying a systematic methodology considering the individuals’ age and sex when evaluating the hierarchical structure of a social group. Moreover, they confirm the validity of the concept of dominance relationships in describing the social bonds within a family pack of captive wolves.

In 2007, the USA removed (delisted) the grey wolf ( Canis lupus ) in the upper Midwest from the Endangered Species List. After 35 years of being considered endangered, these wolves had increased from 750 in 38 400 km2 of Minnesota ([Fuller et al . 1992][1]) to over 4100 inhabiting 110 000

Fifteen helminth species were collected from 47 wolves (Canis lupus ) which were surveyed from 1993 to 1999 in northwestern Spain. These included the trematode Alaria alata (2.1%); the cestodes Taenia hydatigena (44.7%), T. multiceps (29.8%), T. serialis (2.1%), Dipylidium caninum (6.4%) and Mesocestoides sp. aff. litteratus (4.2%); and the nematodes Pearsonema plica (7.4%), Trichuris vulpis (10.6%), Trichinella britovi (12.8%), Ancylostoma caninum (8.5%), Uncinaria stenocephala (51.1%), Toxocara canis (6.4%) Toxascaris leonina (4.2%), Angiostrongylus vasorum (2.1%) and Dirofilaria immitis (2.1%). Only two wolves were not infected. A single infection occurred in 28.9% of the cases, but the commonest infracommunity (31.1%) involved three species. The helminths Alaria alata, Taenia hydatigena, Mesocestoides sp. aff. litteratus, P. plica, Trichuris vulpis, and Ancylostoma caninum parasitizing C. lupus are reported for the first time in Spain. Taenia serialis and D. immitis are reported for the first time in wolves in Europe. Angiostrongylus vasorum represents a new host record for wolves. The helminth fauna of Spanish wolves is compared with that of other European wolf populations. Some epidemiological considerations of the helminth fauna of wolves in Spain and the health risk to humans are also discussed.