Difficulty-Generating Features of Text-based Physics Tasks

Objective: A set of 4 driving related tasks were used to evaluate the potential for a modified Detection Response Task (DRT) to simultaneously measure visual and cognitive task demands. Background: The accurate assessment of cognitive and visual tasks demands in driving has become increasingly important. As of yet, no simple, cost effective approach has been found to measure visual demands in complex, multimodal tasks. Methods: Two experiments are presented which evaluate an extension of the standard DRT methodology. The discriminate sensitivity of the experiments is tested using an integrated testing configuration, which systematically increased visual demand across four conditions. Results: Results suggest that the standard DRT configurations are highly tuned to selectively evaluate cognitive demand but that a variant of the system may be able to simultaneously evaluate changes in both visual and cognitive task demands. Conclusions: These data suggest that the simple, rapid, and reliable assessment of both visual and cognitive task demands is possible, even in highly fluid systems with non-constant visual task requirements.

This article presents an overview of interest research and describes the theoretical and methodological background for the assessment of interest in science in large‐scale assessments like the ‘Programme for International Student Assessment’ (PISA). The paper starts with a short retrospective on the history of interest, bringing out theoretical roots that help to understand recent discussions on interest in science education. As interest is a widely used concept with manifold facets, it is essential to discuss different ways of modelling the relationship between a person and a comprehensive object like science with all of its different aspects, including wide ranges of content as well as contexts. Models that can be used for describing the content structure of science interest and the process of interest development are presented. Based on an overview of typical methods for assessing interests, exemplary findings on students’ interest in science are presented, which play an important role in the current scientific debate. Finally, challenges for future research on interest in science education are discussed.

<p style="text-align:justify">The aim of this study is to find out the preferences of students (150) in the first year of the study of the Preschool and Primary Education programme. The data was collected using a questionnaire in the first seminar focusing on science content (a course called Science Propaedeutics) to determine the preferences of pre-service teachers. The aim was to find out the (un)popularity of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) education covering the subjects of Biology, Physics, Mathematics, Technology and Chemistry in Slovakia. The results showed that students are interested in science education. The findings also showed that students prefer more biological topics (humans and plants) and less physics, chemistry, and mathematics. They also preferred topics that they knew from everyday life. The results revealed a negative correlation between students' concerns about teaching science in their future practice and their interest in science education. We found it necessary to connect the topics to everyday life and avoid mathematical calculations. So we can increase their interest in these areas/issues in the Science Propaedeutics course.</p>

Background: Studying changes in brain activity among table tennis players during tasks of varying difficulty can provide insights into the adaptability and flexibility of the expert brain as well as the formation of cognitive dominance effects. Methods: In this study, national-level table tennis players were recruited to investigate the dynamic processes of brain activity during spatial cognitive tasks of differing difficulty levels. Using event-related potential techniques and functional connectivity analyses, we aimed to determine how the dominant hemisphere for spatial cognition modulates cognitive processing under varying task demands. Results: The P3 wave amplitude in the right hemisphere was consistently greater than that in the left hemisphere regardless of task difficulty. Although the amplitude of the P3 component in the left hemisphere did not significantly differ between low- and high-difficulty tasks, that in the right hemisphere exhibited a significant difference; the amplitude was higher in high-difficulty than in low-difficulty tasks. Functional connectivity analysis further indicated that the brain demonstrated more pronounced synergistic activity in the theta frequency band during high-difficulty tasks. Conclusion: These findings suggest that when task difficulty increases, the brain tends to preferentially activate regions directly related to the task rather than adopting a strategy of unified whole-brain mobilisation. This resource allocation may represent an optimisation mechanism that minimises cognitive waste by intensifying activity in brain regions directly involved in meeting task demands.

A comprehensive decoding of cognitive load

This study looked at how student teachers created and altered mathematical assignments using their pedagogical and subject-specific knowledge of mathematics. It also looked at the connection between instructor expertise and a task's cognitive requirements. The framework of Hill, Ball, and Schilling outlines many domains of knowledge in mathematics for instruction. The Stein, Smith, Henningsen, and Silver framework also characterizes the cognitive demands of mathematical tasks in research. Findings show that when student teachers lack the expertise in other areas, particularly subject matter expertise, required to accomplish specific educational tasks, they focus on knowledge of shared content. was shown. When the student's teacher changed the task, the cognitive demands of that task often decreased. These declines are often related to a lack of subject matter expertise.

Homework helps students learn and develop independent study skills, but they often need extra guidance and reliable information sources, especially in science where abstract concepts can be challenging. Traditional resources may not match students’ cognitive levels and can lead to information overload. To address this, non-AI rule-based (NARB) educational chatbots can provide focused, essential information with minimal cognitive load. This study explores the effects of BilgeCan Bot, a NARB chatbot designed to help middle school students with astronomy homework, based on Cognitive Load Theory. Conducted during the 2022–2023 academic year with 52 fifth-grade students in Türkiye, the research used an explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach. Students were divided into an experimental group using BilgeCan Bot and a control group using textbooks. Data was collected through tests, interest scales, interviews, chatbot records, and teacher feedback. Results showed that students using BilgeCan Bot achieved higher scores and had greater interest in science. They described the chatbot as effective and engaging, helping them grasp difficult concepts. Overall, the findings suggest that NARB chatbots can offer targeted, reliable support for homework in science education without overwhelming students.

The Muse of Fire project hypothesizes student interest in science education will improve by highlighting topics with which students have personal interactions. The fiery sting of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, is such a topic for many students in the United States and internationally. Five teams of faculty, high school teachers and undergraduate students developed high school lesson plans investigating aspects of S. invicta biology and venom alkaloids. Ecological relationships; symbiosis with the insect bacterium, Wolbachia; human health impact; toxicological; and microarray analysis of genetic responses to, S. invicta venom alkaloids were targeted. Field activities and advanced science and biomedical topics (eg., PCR, gel electrophoresis, microarray analysis, statistical treatment of data) are introduced in the high schools and supported by university faculty. Each lesson is specifically linked to published curriculum standards. Lessons are currently being piloted in five public school sites in both urban and rural school districts. Evaluation of student outcomes will continue through 2010. The Muse of Fire models inter‐institutional, multi‐disciplinary collaboration in which a topic of regional fascination is utilized to enhancement of inquiry‐based high school science education. (Supported by Howard Hughes Medical Institute)

This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of utilizing a self-made wave machine and a computer simulator in teaching basic concepts of waves to Grade 7 students. Drawing on Schwab's Inquiry-based Learning Theory, the research explored how these hands-on and technology-based approaches impact student performance and interest in science education. The researcher used descriptive-correlational and comparative designs. A total of 109 students utilized the self-made wave machine, and 110 students used the computer simulator. These approaches were randomly assigned to the two groups of students. The findings revealed that the students' performances after using the self-made wave machine and computer simulator were both at the “outstanding” level. The data also indicated no significant difference in the students' performances after using the self-made wave machine and computer simulator. Furthermore, students’ interest in using the self-made wave machine and computer simulator was generally “high.” Lastly, no significant relationship was found between students’ interest in activities using self-made wave machine and computer simulator and their performance. These findings suggest that hands-on and digital methods can effectively support science learning, providing educators with versatile tools to engage students. Incorporating self-made apparatus and simulators in science education may enhance student engagement and understanding without significantly altering performance outcomes.

Assessing cognitive load on web search is useful for characterizing search system features and search tasks with respect to their demands on the searcher’s mental effort. It is also helpful for examining how individual differences among searchers (e.g. cognitive abilities) affect the search process. We examined cognitive load from the perspective of primary and secondary task performance. A controlled web search study was conducted with 48 participants. The primary task performance components were found to be significantly related to both the objective and the subjective task difficulty. However, the relationship between objective and subjective task difficulty and the secondary task performance measures was weaker than expected. The results indicate that the dual-task approach needs to be used with caution. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Web search behavior is affected by the task, system, and individual searcher characteristics. Search tasks and their characterization have been a subject of recent systematic studies [1-3]. In particular, researchers have focused on the effects of task complexity and difficulty on information search process [4-10]. One kind of difficulty encountered by searchers is related to mental, or cognitive, requirements imposed by the search system or the task itself. Understanding factors that contribute to user’s cognitive load on search tasks is crucial to identifying search system features and search tasks types that impose increased levels of load on users. As new interactive features are introduced into the information search systems we need to understand what determines their acceptance and why some evidently useful functions are not widely used. For example, user relevance feedback is a feature that has been reported to be avoided by users due to the heightened cognitive load [11]. Among other factors affecting search performance are the user’s cognitive characteristics (e.g., [12, 13]). Methods used to date in assessing cognitive load included searcher observation, self-reports (e.g., using questionnaires, think-aloud protocols, and post-search interviews), dual-task techniques [14, 16], and various approaches that employ external devices to collect additional data on users (e.g., eye-tracking, pressure-sensitive mouse and other physiological sensors [17]). The latter two groups of techniques have the advantage of enabling real-time, ontask data collection. However, the use of external devices can be expensive and impractical. Hence, the promise of dual-task (DT) method that allows for an indirect objective assessment of mental effort on the primary task. Only few studies employed this method to assess cognitive load in online search tasks (e.g., [14, 15, 18]). The article discusses the dual-task method as the technique for assessing cognitive load on web search tasks and presents research that *Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Library & Information Science, School of Communication and Information, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA; E-mail: WebCog@gwizdka.com contributes to better understanding of how objective task difficulty affects searchers’ behavior and their perception of task difficulty.

In the time of curricular reforms across the Europe another chance appeared towards increasing learners´ interest in science education, particularly in relation to the future job selection in the field of natural sciences and technology. Innovations in natural science instruction can be conducted in various ways, e.g. (Bílek & Klečková, 2006): (1) learners´ interest in natural sciences and their instruction (What am I interested in?; What would I like to learn?; What learning content should be learned?) – answers to these questions were discussed i.e. in the analysis of the international comparative study ROSE (Relevance of Science Education) (ROSE Project, 2018), (2) context of instruction (optimally – “school science”, application context, social context, personality context), (3) learning content (standards; Framework and School programmes; traditions; new topics) or (4) competences (key competences; “scientific literacy“; activities in natural science).

Early science learning has the potential to enhance children's social interaction development, but a lack of resources in schools requires well-structured activities and a supportive learning environment. In a project aimed at helping children develop an interest in science education from an early age, this describes a Project-Based, Technology-Enhanced Science Module (PTBLM) for preschool children, fostering their interest in science through collaborative activities. This study employs a multi-method design, utilising the ADDIE module based on five phases. In the first phase, the needs analysis phase, nine experienced early childhood education educators were interviewed, and thematic analysis revealed the necessity of developing a science learning module for preschool children. During the second and third phases, the design and development phases, the module content was validated by six different experts, with the Content Validity Index (CVI) indicating unanimous agreement on the module’s design and development (k = 1). In the fourth phase, the implementation phase, an 8-week intervention was conducted with 25 preschool children, and the mean scores showed a significant increase, with post-test scores being higher (m = 66.0) than pre-test scores (m = 33.00). In the final evaluation phase, an educator was interviewed, and content analysis indicated that the learning module was highly positive in enhancing children's social interaction development through engaging science projects. In summary, this learning module provides educators with more opportunities and resources to enhance science education in preschool, thereby expanding children's exposure to the world of science.

Gauging the effectiveness of specific teaching strategies remains a major topic of interest in science education. Inquiry teaching among others has been supported by extensive research and recommended by the National Science Education Standards. However, most of the empirical evidence in support was collected in research settings rather than in normal school environments. Propensity score analysis was performed within the marginal mean weighting through stratification (MMW-S) approach to examine the effects of the level of openness of inquiry teaching on student science achievement and attitudes with the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2006 data. Weighting subjects on MMW-S weight successfully balanced all treatment groups on all selected covariates. Significant effects were identified on both cognitive and attitudinal outcomes. For student science achievement, the highest score was achieved at Level 2 inquiry teaching, that is, students conduct activities and draw conclusions from data. For student science attitudes, higher level of inquiry teaching resulted in higher scores. The said conclusions were generally held in most PISA 2006 participating countries when the analysis was performed in each country separately.

Background: Team productivity is a critical factor in organizational performance and is strongly influenced by individual worker motivation and task characteristics. Objective: This study investigates the impact of incentive-based motivation on team productivity under varying levels of task difficulty using an agent-based modeling (ABM) approach. Methods: The model incorporates three core motivational dimensions—achievement motivation, affiliation motivation, and power motivation—along with individual ability levels to simulate task completion behavior within teams. A total of 20 worker agents were simulated across 27 different motivation profile combinations, with task difficulty values categorized into low, medium, and high levels. Each simulation was repeated 30 times to ensure robustness of the results. Productivity was measured based on task completion time, reflecting the collective contribution of team members. Results: The simulation results indicate that motivation profiles significantly affect team productivity depending on task difficulty. For high task difficulty scenarios, teams composed of agents with high achievement and high power motivation demonstrated the fastest task completion times. In contrast, under low task difficulty conditions, agents with high achievement and high affiliation motivation performed more effectively. Medium task difficulty scenarios showed relatively balanced performance across most motivation profiles, with power motivation still contributing to faster completion times. Conclusion: These findings highlight the importance of aligning incentive-based motivation with task complexity to enhance team productivity. The study also demonstrates the usefulness of agent-based modeling as a tool for analyzing complex team dynamics and providing insights into optimal motivation-task matching strategies in organizational settings.

The purpose of the paper is to study the effectiveness of the use of informational and educational environment during the study of students of the training course Informatics to enhance their cognitive activity. The use of educational technologies with the use of ICT tools allows you to modify the entire teaching process, implement a model of student-centered learning, intensify classes by improving cognitive activity, and most importantly, improve senior students' self-training. The main tasks of modern pedagogical technologies using ICT tools are the development of interactive environments for managing the cognitive activity process, access to modern information and educational resources (multimedia textbooks, various databases, educational sites and other sources). The informational and educational environment is based on the integration of information on traditional and electronic media, computer-telecommunication interaction technologies, virtual libraries, distributed databases, educational and methodical complexes and an extended didactic device. In the concept of information-educational environment, the pedagogical system and its support are combined. The scientific novelty of the paper includes analysis of the works of scientists on increasing the cognitive activity of students through means of ICT and improving the forms of organizing classes in computer science using ICT tools. The article presents informational and educational environment for the study of computer science in secondary schools, namely Internet portal Virtual office of computer science and ICT. The purpose of creating an Internet portal is to coordinate the efforts of all participants in the educational process (students, teachers, parents), the organization of educational and non-academic work, as well as the activation of cognitive activity of students during the study of computer science. The practical value of the study is to refine the concepts of cognitive activity, educational activity, cognitive interest, the development and improvement of technology for raising senior students' cognitive activity by solving mathematical problems by means of computer mathematics at computer science lessons. The use of computer mathematics as an educational tool makes it possible to rethink traditional approaches to the study a lot of issues of computer science and mathematics, to increase the experimental activity of students, to bring the learning process closer to the real cognition process.