Distance-Based Residual Energy-Efficient Stable Election Protocol for WSNs

Recently, the use of wireless sensor networks has spread to applications areas that are not viable or costefficient to be run on other types of networks. Due to some critical tasks done in these types of networks, the majority of sensor networks applications should be dependable and should be run continuously and reliably without interruption. Hence, the two more significant dependability factors that should be nowadays taken into account in developing wireless sensor networks applications are ‘availability’ and ‘reliability’ of application services. The specific characteristics and constraints of wireless sensor networks require a different interpretation of these two factors when developing applications for such networks. In this paper, we propose a middleware layer mechanism for satisfying these two factors as more important dependability issues in sensor networks applications. We propose an event-based middleware service that is specifically designed for wireless sensor networks in which a group of sensor nodes forms a cluster and a replicated service is run on each cluster head. The communication model among cluster members and cluster head is based on the publish/subscribe scheme. We show how the replicated services and communication model in cluster nodes satisfy dependability issues and increase the availability and reliability of applications running under the proposed middleware.

Wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of densely distributed nodes that are deployed to observe and react to events within the sensor field. In WSNs, energy management and network lifetime optimization are major issues in the designing of cluster-based routing protocols. Clustering is an efficient data gathering technique that effectively reduces the energy consumption by organizing nodes into groups. However, in clustering protocols, cluster heads (CHs) bear additional load for coordinating various activities within the cluster. Improper selection of CHs causes increased energy consumption and also degrades the performance of WSN. Therefore, proper CH selection and their load balancing using efficient routing protocol is a critical aspect for long run operation of WSN. Clustering a network with proper load balancing is an NP-hard problem. To solve such problems having vast search area, optimization algorithm is the preeminent possible solution. Spider monkey optimization (SMO) is a relatively new nature inspired evolutionary algorithm based on the foraging behaviour of spider monkeys. It has proved its worth for benchmark functions optimization and antenna design problems. In this paper, SMO based threshold-sensitive energy-efficient clustering protocol is proposed to prolong network lifetime with an intend to extend the stability period of the network. Dual-hop communication between CHs and BS is utilized to achieve load balancing of distant CHs and energy minimization. The results demonstrate that the proposed protocol significantly outperforms existing protocols in terms of energy consumption, system lifetime and stability period.

Data collection is a fundamental task in wireless sensor networks. In many applications of wireless sensor networks, approximate data collection is a wise choice due to the constraints in communication bandwidth and energy budget. In this paper, we focus on efficient approximate data collection with prespecified error bounds in wireless sensor networks. The key idea of our data collection approach ADC (Approximate Data Collection) is to divide a sensor network into clusters, discover local data correlations on each cluster head, and perform global approximate data collection on the sink node according to model parameters uploaded by cluster heads. Specifically, we propose a local estimation model to approximate the readings of sensor nodes in subsets, and prove rated error-bounds of data collection using this model. In the process of model-based data collection, we formulate the problem of selecting the minimum subset of sensor nodes into a minimum dominating set problem which is known to be NP-hard, and propose a greedy heuristic algorithm to find an approximate solution. We further propose a monitoring algorithm to adaptively adjust the composition of node subsets according to changes of sensor readings. Our trace-driven simulations demonstrate that ADC remarkably reduces communication cost of data collection with guaranteed error bounds.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist of a large number of small, low data rate and inexpensive nodes that communicate in order to sense or control a physical phenomenon. The major difference between the WSN and the traditional wireless network is that sensors are very sensitive to energy consumption. Moreover, the performance of the sensor network applications highly depends on the lifetime of the network and we expect the lifetime of several months to several years. Thus, energy saving is crucial in designing long-lived wireless sensor networks. Many researchers have focused on developing energy efficient cluster based protocols for WSNs, but there has not been much research on event driven WSNs and, their focus is on continuous driven networks. In this paper, we propose a modified algorithm of Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) protocol which is a well known energy efficient clustering algorithm for WSNs. Our modified protocol called “Adaptive and Energy Efficient Clustering Algorithm for Event-Driven Application in Wireless Sensor Networks (AEEC)” is aimed at prolonging the lifetime of a sensor network by balancing energy usage of the nodes. AEEC makes the nodes with more residual energy have more chances to be selected as cluster head. Also, we use elector nodes which take the responsibility of collecting energy information of the nearest sensor nodes and selecting the cluster head. We compared the performance of our AEEC algorithm with the LEACH protocol using simulations .

But, as the energy-efficiency is critical for periodical data gathering applications in wireless sensor networks, it has the highest priority in algorithms design; also the latency, packet loss, and throughput are important factors and should be addressed. This chapter proposes a routing protocol inspired by an energy-efficient cluster-based routing protocol called Energy-Aware Routing Protocol (EAP). The new enhanced protocol that is called Low Loss Energy-Aware Routing Protocol (LLEAP) enhances the performance of EAP in terms of some quality of service parameters by adding a second iteration for constructing the tree structure for multi-hop communication among cluster heads, by modifying the used weights of the cluster heads and parent node selection, and finally by selecting suitable aggregation method to decrease losses and delay. Simulation results showed that LLEAP significantly outperforms EAP in terms of packet loss percentage by on average 93.4%.

Wireless industrial sensor networks are wireless sensor networks which have been adapted to industrial applications. Most techniques for wireless sensor networks can be applied to wireless industrial sensor networks. However, for industrial applications of wireless industrial sensor networks, new requirements such as real-time, reliable delivery need to be considered. In this paper, we propose EARQ, which is a novel routing protocol for wireless industrial sensor networks. It provides real-time, reliable delivery of a packet, while considering energy awareness. In EARQ, a node estimates the energy cost, delay and reliability of a path to the sink node, based only on information from neighboring nodes. Then, it calculates the probability of selecting a path, using the estimates. When packet forwarding is required, it randomly selects the next node. A path with lower energy cost is likely to be selected, because the probability is inversely proportional to the energy cost to the sink node. To achieve real-time delivery, only paths that may deliver a packet in time are selected. To achieve reliability, it may send a redundant packet via an alternate path, but only if it is a source of a packet. Experimental results show that EARQ is suitable for industrial applications, due to its capability for energy efficient, real-time, reliable communications.

A Wireless sensor network (WSN) comprises several sensor nodes such as magnetic, thermal, and infrared, and the radar is set up in a particular geographical area. The primary aim of sensor network is to transmit reliable, secure data from one node to another node, node to base station and vice versa and from base station to all nodes in a network and to conserve the energy of sensor nodes. On the other hand, there are several restrictions such as large energy consumption, limited storage/memory and processing ability, higher latency, and insufficient resources. The related security issues in wireless sensor network are authenticity, confidentiality, robustness, integrity, and data freshness. The sensor nodes are susceptible to several attacks such as DOS, Sybil, flood, black hole, selective forwarding which results in the leakage of sensitive and valuable information. It is therefore necessary to provide security against these critical attacks in the network. Wireless sensor network were earlier used for military applications with the objective of monitoring friendly and opposing forces, battlefield surveillance, detection of attacks, but today Wireless Networking have a huge number of applications-environmental, healthcare, home, industrial, commercial and are still counting. This paper is an extensive review of the security requirements, attacks that are to be avoided and resolved for achieving a secure network connection. This paper also emphasizes various limitations and defense strategies to prevent threats and attacks. The issues of applications of wireless sensor network for smooth and reliable transmissions are also discussed. The sensor networks are popular for mission-critical-tasks and security is immensely required for such hostile environment employed networks.

Monitoring and automatic control of building environment is a crucial application of Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) in which maximizing network lifetime is a key challenge. Previous research into the performance of a network in a building environment has been concerned with radio propagation within a single floor. We investigate the link quality distribution to obtain full coverage of signal strength in a four-storey building environment, experimentally. Our results indicate that the transitional region is of particular concern in wireless sensor network since it accommodates high variance unreliable links. The transitional region in a multi-storey building is mainly due to the presence of reinforced concrete slabs at each storey and the fac┬©ade which obstructs the radio signal and introduces an additional absorption term to the path loss.

Wireless sensor networks consist of a large number of low-cost, low-power, and multifunctional sensor nodes that communicate over short distances through wireless links. Such sensor networks are ideal candidates for a wide range of applications such as monitoring of critical infrastructures, data acquisition in hazardous environments, industry control systems, vehicular networks, and military operations. Wireless sensor networks introduce new security challenges due to their dynamic topology, severe resource constraints, and absence of a trusted infrastructure. The purpose of this special issue is to publish high-quality research papers as well as review articles addressing recent advances of wireless sensor network security. In this special issue, we will explore the topic of security challenges and solutions for the wide application of wireless sensor networks in different areas, such as RFID and smart grid. RFID has been widely used in logistics and internet of things. Smart grid leverages sensor networks to better balance the load of the power grid. Both of them have great impact on the daily life and areweak points of thewhole economy,which attract the attention of terrorists. The feasible attacks and defense solutions are still not clear.The papers in this volume also cover several important foundational security services for wireless sensor networks, such as key management, key distribution, secure cluster formation, secure architecture for multihop communication, intrusion prediction, and secure localization. All these foundational security services are critical bases for application of wireless sensor networks. We hope that the papers in this volume engender further thinking about new security challenges for wireless sensor networks and even further “out-of-the-box” ideas about how to solve new security problems for wireless sensor networks.

In real-life applications of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), optimization of the network operation is required to extend its lifetime. A framework is proposed that enables practical development of centralized cluster-based protocols supported by optimization methods for the WSNs. Based on this framework, a protocol using harmony search algorithm (HSA), a music-based meta-heuristic optimization method, is designed and implemented in real time for the WSNs. It is expected to minimize the intra-cluster distances between the cluster members and their cluster heads (CHs) and optimize the energy distribution of the WSNs. The study of HSA cluster-based protocol is carried out in a real case where the WSNs equipped with the proposed protocol are deployed in an indoor environment to monitor the ambient temperature for fire detection. A comparison is made with the well-known cluster-based protocols developed for WSNs such as low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy-centralized (LEACH-C) and a cluster-based protocol using Fuzzy C-Means (FCM) clustering algorithm. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed protocol using HSA can be realized in centralized cluster-based WSNs for safety and surveillance applications in building environments. From the obtained experimental test results, it can be seen that the WSNs lifetime has been extended using the proposed HSA protocol in comparison with that of LEACH-C and FCM protocols.

Security problems have become obstacles in the practical application of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), and intrusion detection is the second line of defense. In this paper, an intrusion detection based on dynamic state context and hierarchical trust in WSNs is proposed, which is flexible and suitable for constantly changing WSNs characterized by changes in the perceptual environment, transitions of states of nodes, and variations in trust value. A multidimensional two-tier hierarchical trust mechanism in the level of sensor nodes (SNs) and cluster heads (CHs) considering interactive trust, honesty trust, and content trust is put forward, which combines direct evaluation and feedback-based evaluation in the fixed hop range. This means that the trust of SNs is evaluated by CHs, and the trust of CHs is evaluated by neighbor CHs and BS; in this way, the complexity of evaluation is reduced without evaluations by all other CHs in networks. Meanwhile, the intrusion detection mechanism based on a self-adaptive dynamic trust threshold is described, which improves the flexibility and applicability and is suitable for cluster-based WSNs. The experiment simulation and evaluation indicate that the mechanism we proposed outperforms the existing typical system in malicious detection and resource overhead.

The applications of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are massive in the range that starts from the defense, civil, military to our day to day routine life. Energy conservation in WSNs is a crucial issue to make the network operational for a long time. It is entirely worth noting that most of the energy consumption occurs during the data transmission. Routing protocol plays a significant role in carrying and forwarding the data to the destination. Clustering is one such branch of routing technique that increases the Network Lifetime unexpectedly through minimal energy consumption. In this regard, this research paper aims to formulate an exciting clustering problem in WSNs where the coordinates of patterns are random variables. The clustering problem is solved using the CENTROID approach, such as Cluster Head (CH) selection is done with an optimization interpretation. The proposed protocol is verified through the ns-2 simulator, and the results obtained from the simulations show that the proposed constrained clustering LEACH (CC-LEACH) offers its superiority over the existing protocols such as LEACH and LEACH-C in terms of various performance parameters.

Prolonged network lifetime, scalability and efficient load balancing are essential for optimal performance of a wireless sensor network. Clustering provides an effective way of extending the lifetime of a sensor network. Clustering is the process that divides sensor networks into smaller localized group (called clusters) of members with a cluster head. Clustering protocols need to elect optimal number of clusters in hierarchically structured wireless sensor networks. Any clustering scheme that elects clusters uniformly (irrespective of the distance from Base Station) incurs excessive energy usage on clusters proximal and distant to Base Station. In single hop networks a gradual increment in the energy depletion rate is observed as the distance from the cluster head increases[17]. This work focuses on the analysis of wasteful energy consumption within a uniform cluster head election model (EPEM) and provides an analytical solution to reduce the overall consumption of energy usage amongst the clusters elected in a wireless sensor network. A circular model of sensor network is considered, where the sensor nodes are deployed around a centrally located Base Station. The sensor network is divided into several concentric rings centred at the Base Station. A model, Unequal Probability Election Model (UEPEM), which elects cluster heads non-uniformly is proposed. The probability of cluster head election depends on the distance from the Base Station. UEPEM reduces the overall energy usage by about 21% over EPEM. The performance of UEPEM improves as the number of rings is increased.

The technological advancements have led to the revolution in sensing technology. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) has been one of the important researched areas which have attracted attention of various researchers. The battery constraints have led to the development of energy efficient routing protocols. Past studies ignore the importance of distance factor for the selection of Cluster Head (CH), which led to inefficient energy consumption in the network. In this chapter, Distance based Enhance Threshold Sensitive Stable Election Protocol (DETSSEP) has been proposed in which CH selection is based on networks average energy, nodes remaining energy and distance between nodes and Base Station (BS). Dual hop communication is used between distant CHs and BS to achieve uniform energy consumption in the network. It is observed through the simulation analysis that DETSSEP outperforms Enhance Threshold Sensitive Stable Election Protocol (ETSSEP) in various performance matrices viz. stability period, throughput, lifetime and remaining energy of the network.

Resource Management Approach to an Efficient Wireless Sensor Network