Diversity in anatomical education.

Systemic Representational Biases in Anatomical Education: A Multi-Modal Content Analysis of Racial, Sex, and Skin Tone Diversity Across Literature, Textbooks, and Digital Platforms.

Reconsidering laboratory-based anatomy within the backdrop of digital transformation: Bringing an old practice into a new world.

Highlights Review of the potential use of AI in anatomy education, including any weaknesses or threats associated with integrating AI into anatomy teaching. Recommendations for incorporating AI in anatomy education within medical curricula. ABSTRACT Background: Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to machines capable of performing human tasks and exhibiting intelligent behavior. The application of AI in medical education has increased significantly, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, as remote teaching became widespread across all medical disciplines, including anatomy. Objective: This narrative review aimed to explore the potential use of AI in anatomy education and to identify any associated weaknesses or threats related to its integration. Material and Method: A systematic literature search was conducted using PubMed and Embase (limited to the past 5 years), and Google Scholar (limited to the past 2 years), employing keywords related to "artificial intelligence" and "anatomy education". Inclusion criteria were randomized controlled trials and review articles focusing on AI tools in anatomy education, published in English and freely accessible. Exclusion criteria included abstract-only publications, non-human studies, and studies not specifically related to anatomy education. Of the 3,298 articles identified, seven met the inclusion criteria. Result: Seven articles fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The reviewed literature explored AI applications in anatomy education, highlighting innovations such as blended learning, automated assessments, and digital platforms. Overall, AI demonstrates potential to improve teaching effectiveness and student engagement. However, successful implementation requires strategic planning, adequate infrastructure, and a solid pedagogical framework. Conclusion: AI has emerged as a valuable tool in anatomy education, enhancing learning outcomes, accessibility, and instructional flexibility. Nonetheless, its integration must be carefully managed to overcome current limitations and ensure equitable, effective, and sustainable educational practices.

IntroductionAgainst a backdrop of ever-changing diagnostic and treatment modalities, stakeholder perceptions (medical students, clinicians, anatomy educators) are crucial for the design of an anatomy curriculum which fulfils the criteria required for safe medical practice. This study compared perceptions of students, practising clinicians, and anatomy educators with respect to the relevance of anatomy education to medicine.MethodsA quantitative survey was administered to undergraduate entry (n = 352) and graduate entry students (n = 219) at two Irish medical schools, recently graduated Irish clinicians (n = 146), and anatomy educators based in Irish and British medical schools (n = 30). Areas addressed included the association of anatomy with medical education and clinical practice, mode of instruction, and curriculum duration.ResultsGraduate-entry students were less likely to associate anatomy with the development of professionalism, teamwork skills, or improved awareness of ethics in medicine. Clinicians highlighted the challenge of tailoring anatomy education to increase student readiness to function effectively in a clinical role. Anatomy educators indicated dissatisfaction with the time available for anatomy within medical curricula, and were equivocal about whether curriculum content should be responsive to societal feedback.ConclusionsThe group differences identified in the current study highlight areas and requirements which medical education curriculum developers should be sensitive to when designing anatomy courses.

Conversations about inclusivity in anatomy education are at a critical juncture. While the need for a more equitable discipline is widely recognised, significant challenges remain. As this project aimed to reimagine what a truly inclusive learning experience could like and how it might be best achieved, an inclusive approach to research methodology was essential to ensure robust and representative results. Due to the paucity in anatomical literature on this topic, the authors applied concepts from sociological research methodology and innovative methods of demographic data collection to their own discipline. The study utilised questionnaires and focus groups to collect diverse data on lived experiences of inclusivity and exclusion in anatomy education. A convenience sample gathered quantitative and qualitative data through questionnaires and semi-structured focus groups. Guided by inclusive research practices including participatory research, this study makes use of inductive reflexive thematic analysis with critical orientation to situate inclusivity in its social, historical and political contexts. This paper discusses how the authors incorporated these inclusive methods, explores the challenges this type of research generates, and acts as a framework for those wishing to conduct more inclusive research in their discipline. Application of these methods yielded richer and more nuanced data, thus increasing the validity of the study. Although anatomy education may not currently represent diverse populations, positive action towards change is underway, with many in the discipline eager to actively confront exclusion. The existing dataset is predominantly Eurocentric. As such, the next phase of this research will translate recruitment literature and questionnaires into other languages to collect more global perspectives. To encourage further anti-exclusion research, the data will be made widely accessible for analysis.

Previous studies suggest that, while both medical students and professional anatomists recognize the importance of gender issues and do not wish to associate with sexism, most are unaware of the possible negative aspects of sexism within anatomy (Morgan et al. , J. Anat. 224:352-365; , Clin. Anat. 29:892-910). To further investigate this issue, we provided second year medical students at Cardiff University (n = 293) and at the University of Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité (n = 142) and professional anatomists (n = 208) with a questionnaire inviting them to address the possibility that gender factors within anatomical imagery (both historical and contemporary) hinder the dispassionate representation of anatomy. Ethical approval for the survey was obtained from the universities at both Cardiff and Paris. In the light of previous findings, the hypothesis tested was that medical students and professional anatomists do not perceive a gender bias when reflected in imagery that is based on anatomical iconography. Our survey results support this hypothesis and suggest that most students and anatomists are unaware of the possible negative aspects of sexism within the culture of anatomy. We consequently recommend that teachers of anatomy and authors of anatomical textbooks should be aware of the possibility of adverse effects on professional matters relating to equality and diversity issues when using imagery. Clin. Anat. 30:711-732, 2017. © 2017Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The purpose of this study is to determine pre-service mathematics teachers’ views on digital learning platforms, the extent to which these platforms are integrated into teaching and assessment processes, the usability of digital learning platforms in teaching and assessment processes, pre-service mathematics teachers’ thoughts on the contributions of digital learning platforms to mathematics education and the problems they encounter when using digital learning platforms. This study is important in terms of helping to determine the necessary strategies and educational policies to support the integration of digital learning platforms into teaching and assessment processes, understanding the potential of digital learning platforms in mathematics teaching and identifying important considerations for improving teaching practices. It also aims to contribute to finding solutions to the problems encountered. In the context of 21st-century skills, including technological skills and digital literacy, it is important to determine pre-service mathematics teachers’ knowledge levels about these skills during their professional preparation process and to reveal their opinions about digital learning platforms, which are considered to play a significant role in developing these skills in middle school students. In this research, a case study design, which is one of the qualitative research methods, was used. The study group consists of 68 fourth-year students from the elementary mathematics teaching program at the faculties of education of state universities located in Aydın, Denizli and Kars. Data for the study were collected through a semi-structured interview form consisting of 8 open-ended questions. The data obtained from the data collection process were analyzed using content analysis, a qualitative analysis method. According to the findings of the research, pre-service mathematics teachers prefer the question-and-answer technique the most in teaching. They define digital learning platforms as web-based/online environments and use platforms such as GeoGebra/Desmos and Educational Informatics Network. These pre-service teachers integrate digital learning platforms into teaching and assessment processes and use these platforms because they are engaging and enjoyable. They decide on the platform selection based on the subject and learning outcomes. Additionally, they state that digital platforms are useful in visualizing abstract concepts. However, internet and infrastructure inadequacies are expressed as significant obstacles in the use of digital platforms.

The best method to teach anatomy continues to be widely debated. Many UK medical schools have recently changed their course structure with the use of cadaveric dissection declining. A recent study by Patel and Moxham ([ 2008] Clin. Anat. 21:182-189) found that professional anatomists viewed dissection to be the most suitable method to fulfil anatomical learning outcomes. The opinion of 580 second year medical students across two UK medical schools was surveyed. A methodology similar to that employed by Patel and Moxham ([ 2008] Clin. Anat. 21:182-189) aimed to explore which teaching methods students considered best to fulfil a prescribed set of anatomical learning outcomes. A total of 302 responses were returned (52%). Difference in students' opinion with regard to the teaching methods was statistically significant (P < 0.0001). A statistically significant agreement was found between the opinions of students from Imperial and Nottingham, and between the anatomists and the students, regarding the effectiveness of all teaching methods at meeting learning outcomes. Dissection was overall most "fit for purpose" in meeting learning outcomes, but no single teaching modality met all aspects of the curriculum. Dissection should remain a leading teaching modality in modern medical school anatomy courses. In addition to its role in the teaching of anatomy, it enables learning in a social context and holds broader learning opportunities to help future doctors best fulfill Good Medical Practice guidelines (General Medical Council, 2006). This, however, should be in the context of a multi-modal approach to the teaching of anatomy.

Human anatomy pertaining to dentistry forms a core component of dental education, as it involves understanding the complex structures of the head, neck, and oral cavity. Conventionally, it has been taught through cadaveric dissection, bone specimens, and histology slides. A strong grasp of knowledge in head and neck anatomy is critical for clinical procedures, including extractions, implant placements, and surgeries, as well as in specialties such as orthodontics and periodontics. Due to technological advancements, the field of medical/dental education has evolved by integrating tools such as 3D virtual models, augmented reality, virtual reality, and digital platforms. These innovations allow students to interact with anatomical structures, enhancing their understanding of craniofacial anatomy and improving spatial comprehension. Digital resources support self-directed learning and reinforce knowledge retention, while maintaining the importance of hands-on cadaveric dissection for reinforcing tissue structure and spatial relationships. The future of dental anatomy education lies in combining traditional methods with digital tools, creating more interactive and dynamic learning environments to equip students with the skills necessary for modern dental practice. By embracing both approaches, dental education can enhance student learning, ensuring dental professionals are well-prepared to provide high-quality care and improve patient outcomes. In this comprehensive review, we explore the evolution of anatomy education, its role in dental curriculum, and highlight the importance of detailed anatomical knowledge as the foundation of medical/dental practice, along with modern advancements, make learning more interactive and engaging.

Possessing excellent anatomical knowledge is crucial for every health care trainee, including medical and physiotherapy students. Hands-on sessions in the dissection class form the cornerstone of anatomy education. Recent years increasing student numbers and decreased availability of time within the anatomy dissection room, forces the development of alternative teaching methods to use the dissection class as efficiently as possible. Most alternatives include video recordings and books (2D), but also 3D high-fidelity models (3D-HFM). These are anatomically accurate, morphable and dynamic 3D models that result from scanning cadaveric specimens. It is assumed that 3D-HFM have some learning benefits over 2D-models. Development of 3D-HFM is a cost- and time-consuming task and the effect of 3D learning into anatomy education needs to be further evaluated before it can be properly integrated into the program. Therefore, a pilot study is set-up to investigate the learning effect of manipulable 3D-HFM. The pilot study focuses on the effect of using static 2D atlas-type models (2D-ATM) versus manipulable 3D-HFM on learning processes and outcomes when studying and preparing for hands-on osteology of the skull in first-year physical therapy students. 10 students will be randomly assigned into 2 groups (n=5). Students will be invited one-by-one to the Antwerp Social Lab. After having measured their prior anatomy knowledge and spatial ability, students will watch a knowledge clip explaining the basics of the skull. Then, depending on the condition, students are given either static 2D-ATM or manipulable 3D-HFM to study (as if for an exam) the osteology. While learning, students’ eye movements and electroencephalography (EEG) are collected to capture students’ cognitive load. Log data of their actual manipulation of the 2D-ATM or 3D-HFM is collected as well. When finished, students are given a post-test that maps their anatomical knowledge about the osteology of the skull using (1) nominal questions on pictures and x-rays, and (2) more complex questions capturing students’ insight. Finally, a practical test on a physical skull bone is administered that requires students to recognize certain structures and underlying relationships. This pilot will form the basis of a broader research into innovation in anatomy education. Further research is needed to investigate to what extent online 3D-HFM are appropriate to improve the learning process and outcome compared to 2D-ATM. These studies should also examine the effect of 3D-HFM can compensate for the decreased time spent in the dissection room.

It has not happened yet, but it may be just around the corner: the development of thanabots, digital representations of deceased persons created by artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, and their adoption as educational adjuncts for students in anatomy education. To equip anatomy educators with information to allow them to assess this new technology, this article provides an overview of thanabot technology, together with practical and ethical considerations regarding their use in anatomy education. The new term "thanatobot" describes thanabot use in this hypothetical application. For instructive clarity, this thought experiment is limited to thanatobots trained on donors' medical records and supported by anatomy education software. If used, potential benefits might include enhancing learning via linking medical history to anatomical findings and clinical reasoning through personalized teaching assistance. They may support professional development by facilitating humanistic engagement and illuminating donors as people rather than objects. However, their use produces significant risks, including known adverse psychological effects. Thanatabots may inadvertently reduce donors to inauthentic digital proxies, paradoxically harming humanistic engagement, and negatively impacting learning outcomes. AI errors associated with generated content may hinder accurate learning, while cultural sensitivities around engagement with the dead may be violated. Further issues include identifying appropriate operational thanatobot parameters, ethical data management, concerns around appropriate consent, and a lack of legislative oversight. Any responsible educational use of thanabots in education must carefully explore their psychological and social impacts. Ethical, cultural, and pedagogical challenges around thanatobot development should be critically examined prior to any incorporation into anatomy education.

Understanding normal structural and functional anatomy is critical for health professionals across various fields such as medicine, veterinary, and dental courses. The landscape of anatomical education has evolved tremendously due to several challenges and advancements in blended learning approaches, which have led to the adoption of the use of high‐fidelity 3D digital models in anatomical education. Cost‐effective methods such as photogrammetry, which creates digital 3D models from aligning 2D photographs, provide a viable alternative to expensive imaging techniques (i.e. computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging) whilst maintaining photorealism and serving multiple purposes, including surgical planning and research. This study outlines a comprehensive workflow for producing realistic 3D digital models from embalmed veterinary specimens. The process begins with the preservation of specimens using the modified‐WhitWell (WhitWell‐Liverpool) embalming protocol, which ensures optimal tissue rigidity and improved colour enhancement, facilitating easier manipulation and better photogrammetry outcomes. Once embalmed, specimens are photographed to create digital 3D models using photogrammetry. Briefly, all images are processed to generate a sparse point cloud, which is then rendered into a 3D mesh. The mesh undergoes decimation and smoothing to reduce computational load, and a texture is applied to create a lifelike model. Additional colour enhancements and adjustments are made using digital tools to restore the natural appearance of the specimens. The 3D models are stored on a cloud repository and integrated into the University of Liverpool's Virtual Learning Environment, providing continuous, remote access to high‐quality anatomical resources. The switch to embalmed specimens during the COVID‐19 pandemic allowed for longer‐term use and detailed dissections, enhancing the quality of digital models. Fresh specimens, though naturally coloured, are less stable for photogrammetry, making embalmed specimens preferable for accurate 3D modelling. Our method ensures embalmed specimens are rigid enough for precise modelling while allowing texture adjustments to enhance digital representation. This approach has improved logistical efficiency, educational delivery, and specimen quality. Innovative embalming techniques and advanced photogrammetry have the power to revolutionise anatomical education with the creation of a vast digital library accessible online to students at any time. This approach paves the way for integrating digital 3D models into immersive environments and assessing their impact on learning outcomes.

A healthy lifestyle is fundamental for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease and other noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). Investment in primary prevention, including modification of health risk behaviors, could result in a 4-fold improvement in health outcomes compared with secondary prevention based on pharmacological treatment. The American Heart Association (AHA) emphasized the importance of lifestyle in its 2020 goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction. In addition to defining “cardiovascular health” based on criteria for blood pressure and biochemical markers (lipids and glycemia), the AHA Strategic Planning Committee further identified lifestyle characteristics of central importance: nutrition, physical activity, smoking, and maintenance of a healthy body weight.1 The World Health Organization estimated that ≈80% of NCDs could be prevented if 4 key lifestyle practices were followed: a healthy diet, being physically active, avoidance of tobacco, and alcohol intake in moderation.2 To support healthy lifestyle initiatives, major changes are necessary at the societal level to improve population health. Numerous strategies might help to create a culture that promotes and facilitates healthy behaviors, including creating laws and regulations, mounting large-scale public awareness and education campaigns, implementing local community programs, and providing individual counseling.3 Physicians are uniquely positioned to encourage individuals to adopt healthy lifestyle behaviors: Approximately 80% of Americans visit their primary care physician at least once a year. Physicians directly communicate with their patients during clinical encounters across numerous settings, and research indicates that patients highly value recommendations provided by their physicians.4,5 However, data further indicate that lifestyle counseling does not routinely occur in physicians’ offices, thereby representing a lost opportunity. Physicians report that they perform lifestyle counseling during ≈34% of clinic visits.4 Patients, in turn, report an even lower frequency of physician lifestyle counseling. For example, obese patients reported receiving physical activity and …

British Journal of Hospital MedicineVol. 72, No. 9 CorrespondenceTeaching of anatomy through cadaveric dissection: are we really satisfied?Adam M Hill, Joseph ShalhoubAdam M HillSearch for more papers by this author, Joseph ShalhoubSearch for more papers by this authorAdam M Hill; Joseph ShalhoubPublished Online:16 Aug 2013https://doi.org/10.12968/hmed.2011.72.9.535AboutSectionsView articleView Full TextPDF/EPUB ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InEmail View article References Kerby J, Shukur ZN, Shalhoub J (2011) The relationships between learning outcomes and methods of teaching anatomy as perceived by medical students. Clin Anat 24(4): 489–97 Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar Patel KM, Moxham BJ (2008) The relationships between learning outcomes and methods of teaching anatomy as perceived by professional anatomists. Clin Anat 21(2): 182–9 Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar Prakash PLV, Rai R, D'Costa S, Jiji PJ, Singh G (2007) Cadavers as teachers in medical education: knowledge is the ultimate gift of body donors. Singapore Med J 48(3): 186–9; quiz 190 Medline, Google Scholar Winkelmann A, Güldner FH (2004) Cadavers as teachers: the dissecting room experience in Thailand. BMJ 329(7480): 1455–7 Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited byOutcomes and satisfaction of two optional cadaveric dissection courses: A 3-year prospective study2 August 2016 | Anatomical Sciences Education, Vol. 10, No. 2How optional should regional anatomy be in a medical course? An opinion piece18 July 2016 | Clinical Anatomy, Vol. 29, No. 6 1 September 2011Volume 72Issue 9ISSN (print): 1750-8460ISSN (online): 1759-7390 Metrics History Published online 16 August 2013 Published in print 1 September 2011 Information© MA Healthcare LimitedPDF download

Anatomy is a fundamental discipline in medical, veterinary, and allied health sciences, traditionally taught through cadaveric dissection. However, challenges such as limited cadaver availability, ethical concerns, and exposure to toxic preservatives have prompted the development of innovative educational approaches. Recent technological advancements including three-dimensional (3D) visualization, virtual dissection tables, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and 3D printing have significantly transformed anatomical education. These technologies provide interactive and immersive learning environments that enhance spatial understanding of anatomical structures and improve student engagement. Digital anatomy platforms also facilitate integration of radiological imaging with anatomical education, allowing students to correlate clinical imaging with structural anatomy. Furthermore, modern specimen preservation techniques continue to support anatomical teaching by providing durable and realistic models for demonstration. The integration of traditional dissection methods with emerging digital technologies offers a comprehensive approach for improving anatomy education in modern medical curricula.