Diversity of Learners: A Study about how Individual Differences Affect the L2 Learning Process

It is a common belief that engagement and motivation are crucial factors in learning and especially in language learning. In particular, increasing motivation can lead to the mobilization of students’ personal, cognitive, emotional and behavioral resources and, consequently to better learning results. As digital technology has become more sophisticated, its tools and applications can be used in and outside the classroom, in both formal and informal settings, in order to increase students’ motivation. Amongst the various factors -tools, methods or strategies- that can lead to increased motivation, this paper examines the role of technology as a motivational factor in foreign language learning. The relationship between the use of technological means such as web tools and services, digital games, mobile apps or communication tools and motivation in language learning context, has been studied extensively, with a wide variety of approaches, and within the framework of several language learning applications. In order to determine the real impact of technology on learners' motivation, an extensive literature review focusing on studies that have examined the impact of technology use in language learning and teaching on motivation to learn, has been carried out. Furthermore, this paper discusses the concept of motivation in learning context and the relationship between technology and language learning, summarizes some of the numerous studies and researches on this subject, presents a synthesis of the studies examined, and formulates conclusions and perspectives for effective integration of technology as a motivational tool / factor in language learning context.

English has become important in the academic and professional life of an individual. The art of communicating well in English is a challenging task. The steps and strategies adopted by the students and some teachers make the learning of English difficult and uninteresting. The whole world has become a global market and multiple businesses have the aim of achieving targets, thereby, the technology experts and professionals face new challenges in communication in their day to day life. So, attaining success in this vying environment depends not only on acquiring technical knowledge, but also on honing their communication skills. English has turned into a universal language, and its presence and value in the world has expanded enormously in the past decades. Rural students at the tertiary level, lack good communication skills in English and, as a result, become unemployable even if they are knowledgeable in their technical domain. The scenario prevailing in some of the rural engineering colleges, especially in Tamilnadu, is deplorable. The students who graduate from those institutions after spending four years of study come out without learning the art of speaking in English even after studying courses such as Technical English and Communication Skills for three semesters. The aim of the paper is to discuss the main problem, i.e. lack of motivation to learn English. The paper discusses how motivation is an affecting factor in language learning. It also focuses on the theories of motivation and how a teacher can sustain the motivation among the learners.

An interview study of inter-cultural contact and its role in language learning in a foreign language environment

In light of the dramatic growth of Chinese learners worldwide and a need for cross-linguistic research on Chinese literacy development, this study drew upon theories of visual complexity effect (Su and Samuels, 2010) and dual-coding processing (Sadoski and Paivio, 2013) and investigated (a) the effects of character properties (i.e., visual complexity and radical presence) on character acquisition and (b) the relationship between individual learner differences in radical awareness and character acquisition. Participants included adolescent English-speaking beginning learners of Chinese in the U.S. Following Kuo et al. (2014), a novel character acquisition task was used to investigate the process of acquiring the meaning of new characters. Results showed that (a) characters with radicals and with less visual complexity were easier to acquire than characters without radicals and with greater visual complexity; and (b) individual differences in radical awareness were associated with the acquisition of all types of characters, but the association was more pronounced with the acquisition of characters with radicals. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings were discussed.

Affective factors in language learning have long attracted attention. While research findings indicate substantial links between affect and achievement, fur- ther inquiry into the role and contribution of affect in language learning has been limited by a narrow, focus on single emotions and on the disruptive effects of emotion. Drawing on social cognitive theory and research on the intelligent processing of emotions we propose an approach to understanding affect in SLA. This approach emphasizes the reciprocal nature of relationships among emotions, their individual and social antecedents and their effects on learn- ing and achievement. Evidence from a qualitative study into the regulation of affect conducted with 19 independent learners of Russian demonstrates how students' emotions and their regulation of emotions are affected by the learn- ing environment and by the quality of relationships available to them within that environment. Results also reveal how students' cognitive appraisals medi- ate their experiences of emotions, and that intelligent processing of emotions can impact positively on their experience of language learning. We argue that a broader perspective on affect and affective experiences can illuminate fur- ther the interdependence between the social context and cognitive processes in language learning.

This empirical study examines the relationship between individual psychological differences and English language learning outcomes among university students. A sample of 80 students (mean age = 19.8 years, SD = 1.2) from a large urban university participated in this research. The study utilized standardized instruments including the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) to assess temperament, the Riding Cognitive Style Analysis to measure cognitive styles (verbal-imagery and wholist-analytic dimensions), and Cambridge English Placement Test to evaluate language proficiency. Results indicate significant correlations between extraversion and speaking performance (r = 0.42, p < 0.01), between imagery cognitive style and vocabulary acquisition (r = 0.38, p < 0.01), and between analytic style and grammar comprehension (r = 0.44, p < 0.01). Multiple regression analysis revealed that cognitive style dimensions predicted 31% of variance in overall English proficiency (R² = 0.31, p < 0.001). Based on these findings, we propose a framework for personalized language instruction that considers learner temperament and cognitive preferences. The study demonstrates that individual differences significantly impact language learning processes and outcomes, suggesting the need for differentiated pedagogical approaches in EFL contexts.

Individual differences are attached considerable importance in almost all components of the linguistic system, including the acquisition and processing of properties of speech, complex grammatical structures, and discourse (Kidd, Donnelly & Christiansen, 2018). For this reason, research on individual differences has excellent potential to contribute significantly to the debates in the language sciences. Considering each individual as a unique language learner, exploring individual differences can provide language teachers with lots of opportunities concerning material adaptation, adopting appropriate strategies, adjusting their teaching style, and giving feedback in the language learning and teaching process. More specifically, there is a complex relationship among learner variables such as first language literacy, self-efficacy, gender, attainment, and so on (Courtney, Graham, Tonkyn & Marinis, 2017). Individual Differences in Language Learning: A Complex Systems Theory Perspective attempts to decipher this complex system adopting an evidence-based perspective in each significant individual difference presented in different sections. One of the strengths of the book is that each section has been designed in a reader-friendly manner with eye-opener prompt questions at the very beginning and at the end, follow-up tasks, and a list for further reading which serves as a guide for researchers.

Linking neurogenetics and individual differences in language learning: The dopamine hypothesis

Understanding learning theories and individual learning differences is an important aspect in designing and implementing effective learning strategies. This article explores the relationship between learning theories and individual differences in learning contexts. Through an in-depth theoretical review, this article reviews several major learning theories, including behaviorism, constructivism, social cognitive theory, and cognitive load theory. Next, this article discusses various factors that influence individual differences in learning, such as cognitive abilities, learning styles, motivation, interests, and cultural background. The method used is typeliterature study with the aim of exploring research related to the theme of Differentiation-Based Learning and individual differences in developing learning strategies. The study was carried out starting with the stages of collecting and analyzing various previous studies that were relevant to understanding how differentiation-based learning strategies work, and also identifying and collecting articles, journals, books, and academic publications discussing relevant theories. Data sources were taken from academic databases such as Google Scholar (journals), JSTOR, and ProQuest, as well as other references. Next, a literature analysis was carried out, the selected literature was analyzed using the content analysis method to identify main themes, significant findings, and the methodology used in previous research. The research results found that the exploration of effective learning strategies was also a focus with an emphasis on developing a differentiation approach to meet the needs of the diverse learning styles of each student. By integrating learning theories and understanding individual differences, a teacher can create an inclusive learning climate that supports all students, increases their learning potential, and achieves higher academic goals.

This article deals with the methodology of Community Language Learning (C.L.L.) from a cultural and discourse perspective. It seeks to demonstrate how C.L.L. can be exploited effectively in the classroom as a means of addressing the socio-cultural dimension of language learning and teaching. The original C.L.L. model (Charles Curran’s) is examined, and a modified version described and analyzed. The central feature of counselling strategies is highlighted and illustrated, demonstrating the importance of negotiating rather than imposing meaning. The article then explores how C.L.L. is effective in reaching a number of short-term goals: e.g. text repair; learning about socio-cultural conventions and learning to use language appropriate to these conventions; exposing incidents of language failure and reasons for these. The importance of the teacher’s understanding of discourse conventions is underlined. Finally C.L.L. is reviewed in terms of both its weaknesses and strengths.

A key challenge when learning language in naturalistic circumstances is to extract linguistic information from a continuous stream of speech. This study investigates the predictors of such implicit learning among adults exposed to a new language in a new modality (a sign language). Sign-naïve participants (N = 93; British English speakers) were shown a 4-min weather forecast in Swedish Sign Language. Subsequently, we tested their ability to recognise 22 target sign forms that had been viewed in the forecast, amongst 44 distractor signs that had not been viewed. The target items differed in their occurrence frequency in the forecast and in their degree of iconicity. The results revealed that both frequency and iconicity facilitated recognition of target signs cumulatively. The adult mechanism for language learning thus operates similarly on sign and spoken languages as regards frequency, but also exploits modality-salient properties, for example iconicity for sign languages. Individual differences in cognitive skills and language learning background did not predict recognition. The properties of the input thus influenced adults’ language learning abilities at first exposure more than individual differences.

Even though numerous factors are likely to contribute to the outcomes of both naturalistic and instructed second language acquisition, such as the amount of exposure to the target language (TL), the beliefs, dedication, experience, involvement and qualifications of the instructor, or the teaching methods and materials employed, individual learner differences appear to play a significant role in second or foreign language (L2) learning. While specific classifications vary, such individual difference (ID) variables can be sociocultural (e.g., beliefs, attitudes, experience), cognitive (e.g., age, aptitude, working memory, cognitive styles, learning strategies), and affective (e.g., anxiety, personality, motivation, willingness to communicate) in nature, with some IDs cutting across clear-cut categories, themselves being affected by each other and a host of other variables (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015; Gregersen & MacIntyre, 2014; Pawlak, 2012a). This paper provides a brief overview of selected factors in these areas, with particular emphasis being placed on the influence that they are likely to exert on interactions that take place between learners, and between learners and instructors in the language classroom, as well as the ways in which such interactions can contribute to L2 learning. With this in mind, some key assumptions will first be spelled out, which will be followed by the discussion of the latest research findings in each area, subsequently focusing on research undertaken in the interactionist approach. Finally, future research directions will be outlined, methodological issues will be touched upon, and implications for classroom practice will be considered.

Contents: Introduction. Part I: Important Social Contexts in Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. M.E. Brisk, Bilingual Education. M.R. Hawkins, ESL in Elementary Education. P.A. Duff, ESL in Secondary Schools: Programs, Problematics, and Possibilities. D.E. Murray, ESL in Adult Education. S. Carkin, English for Academic Purposes. P. Master, English for Specific Purposes. C. Roberts, English in the Workplace. B. Tomlinson, English as a Foreign Language: Matching Procedures to the Context of Learning. Y. Kachru, Teaching and Learning of World Englishes. Part II: Methods in Second Language Research. Introduction. L. Harklau, Ethnography and Ethnographic Research on Second Language Teaching and Learning. L. van Lier, Case Study. A. Lazaraton, Quantitative Research Methods. D. Nunan, Classroom Research. A. Burns, Action Research. Part III: Applied Linguistics and Second Language Research. Introduction. T. Pica, Second Language Acquisition Research and Applied Linguistics. S.L. McKay, Sociolinguistics and Second Language Learning. J. Zuengler, K.M. Cole, Language Socialization and Second Language Learning. G. Kasper, C. Roever, Pragmatics in Second Language Learning. J.P. Lantolf, Sociocultural and Second Language Learning Research: An Exegesis. N. Markee, Conversation Analysis for Second Language Acquisition. R.B. Kaplan, Contrastive Rhetoric. S. Conrad, Corpus Linguistics and L2 Teaching. Part IV: Second Language Processes and Development. Introduction. G. Ioup, Age in Second Language Development. R. DeKeyser, A. Juffs, Cognitive Considerations in L2 Learning. Z. Han, L. Selinker, Fossilization in L2 Learners. M. Swain, The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research. E. Tarone, Speaking in a Second Language. M. Rost, L2 Listening. T.G. Wiley, Second Language Literacy and Biliteracy. P. Byrd, Instructed Grammar. D.E. Eskey, Reading in a Second Language. I.S.P. Nation, Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. J.S. Hedgcock, Taking Stock of Research and Pedagogy in L2 Writing. E. Hinkel, Analyses of Second Language Text and What Can Be Learned From Them. Part V: Methods and Curricula in Second Language Teaching. Introduction. S.J. Savignon, Communicative Language Teaching: Strategies and Goals. S. Fotos, Traditional and Grammar Translation Methods for Second Language Teaching. J. Williams, Form-Focused Instruction. M.A. Snow, A Model of Academic Literacy for Integrated Language and Content Instruction. R. Ellis, Instructed Language Learning and Task-Based Teaching. M. Celce-Murcia, E. Olshtain, Discourse-Based Approaches: A New Framework for Second Language Teaching and Learning. C.A. Chapelle, Computer-Assisted Language Learning. N.J. Anderson, L2 Learning Strategies. Part VI: Second Language Testing and Assessment. T. McNamara, Introduction. A.J. Kunnan, Language Assessment From a Wider Context. A. Davies, C. Elder, Validity and Validation in Language Testing. M. Chalhoub-Deville, C. Deville, A Look Back at and Forward to What Language Testers Measure. T. Lumley, A. Brown, Research Methods in Language Testing. D. Douglas, Testing Languages for Specific Purposes. C. Leung, Classroom Teacher Assessment of Second Language Development: Construct as Practice. Part VII: Identity, Culture, and Critical Pedagogy in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Introduction. T. Ricento, Considerations of Identity in L2 Learning. M. Byram, A. Feng, Teaching and Researching Intercultural Competence. S. Canagarajah, Critical Pedagogy in L2 Learning and Teaching. Part VIII: Language Planning and Policy and Language Rights. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Introduction. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., Language Planning and Policy Research: An Overview. T. van Els, Status Planning for Learning and Teaching. A.J. Liddicoat, Corpus Planning: Syllabus and Materials Development. R.B. Baldauf, Jr., R.B. Kaplan, Language-in-Education Planning. D.E. Ager, Prestige and Image Planning. S. May, Language Planning and Minority Language Rights.

Metacognitive strategy has been recognised as a crucial factor in language learning, and its role in English writing for Chinese learners still remains unknown. The present study investigates 215 Chinese college engineering students’ use of metacognitive strategies through employing research methods of questionnaire survey and writing proficiency test. According to the results, it is found that selective attention and self-monitoring are used in writing quite often, while planning and self-evaluation are seldom used. Besides, the differences in the use of metacognitive strategies between freshmen and sophomores are not statistically significant. It is also found that engineering students of higher writing proficiency tend to employ metacognitive strategies in academic writing more frequently and effectively than those with poor writing skills. It is eventually suggested that metacognitive strategies should be imparted to the students, and that the training of metacognitive strategies should be integrated into classroom activities of English writing teaching.

This paper focuses on the role of the linguistic landscape in facilitating the acquisition of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Kenya’s multilingual society. It explores how different aspects of the linguistic landscape, including signs, symbols, public notices, and interactions within educational settings, support learners in engaging with and acquiring English. Linguistic Landscape Theory (LLT), which emphasises the visibility of languages in public spaces as a key factor in language learning, is employed. The paper employs a descriptive design and uses qualitative and quantitative data. The data presented is generated at three language institutes in Nairobi: the Consolata Language Centre (CLC), the Language School of Kenya (LSK), and the Kenyan Institute of Foreign Languages and Professional Studies (KIFLAPS). A purposive sampling approach was adopted to select 30 learners and 2 instructors from each institute. Data were collected through questionnaires for learners, in-depth interviews with instructors, and non-participant observation of the linguistic landscapes within the institutes. The findings reveal that the linguistic landscapes in the selected institutes were rich in visual displays, including electronic devices, printed materials, and other visual aids. These elements were strategically incorporated to support EFL acquisition by creating an engaging and visually stimulating environment. The importance of integrating real-life language usage within learning approaches and how the surrounding language environment impacts learners' language development are highlighted. It concludes that the linguistic landscape is vital in accelerating learning, enhancing information transfer, and fostering familiarity with English. It also contributes significantly to developing key language skills such as reading, speaking, and critical thinking. The paper proposes that incorporating a thoughtful linguistic landscape can create a supportive, immersive learning environment, which enhances EFL acquisition outcomes in diverse educational settings.