Driver Crash Avoidance Behavior with ABS in an Intersection Incursion Scenario on the Iowa Driving Simulator

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) is a critical safety component and its performance is crucial for every vehicle manufacturer. The tire plays an important role during an ABS braking maneuver as it is the component that connects the vehicle to the ground and is responsible for generating braking force. The steady-state and transient properties of the tire affect the operation of the vehicle's ABS system and consequently affects its performance/ operational efficiency. The main objective of this study is to investigate how tire design changes influence its interaction with the ABS and its eventual effect on stopping distance. This was conducted through an experimental study where tires were built with three levels of variation in carcass stiffness, tread stiffness and tread compound. Following this, ABS braking maneuvers were performed on two instrumented vehicles including a mid-tier sedan and a high-performance sports car. The steady-state properties of the tire were calculated from experimental data measured both on the vehicle and from the braking skid trailer and thereafter the sensitivity of a given ABS system to such changes in tire properties were analyzed. Lastly, the feasibility of adding intelligence in ABS controllers is investigated through an on-line tire identification routine to determine the tire slip set point value for the ABS controller to maximize the tire braking force.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Most vehicles built today are fitted with anti-lock braking systems (ABS). Accurate simulation modeling of these vehicles during braking as well as combined braking and steering maneuvers thus requires the effects of the ABS to be included. Simplified, lump parameter models are not adequate for detailed, 3-dimensional vehicle simulations that include wheel spin dynamics. This is especially true for simulating complex crash avoidance maneuvers. This paper describes a new ABS model included in the HVE simulation environment. It is a general purpose model and is available for use by any HVE-compatible vehicle simulation model. The basic operational and control characteristics for a typical ABS system are first reviewed. Then, the specific ABS model and its options as implemented in the HVE simulation environment and employed by the SIMON vehicle simulation model are described. To validate the model, pressure cycles produced by the model are compared with stated engineering requirements. In addition, pressure vs. time histories for two ABS simulations on surfaces with different frictional characteristics are compared with experimental data. Finally, the gross effects of ABS on two simulated maneuvers (straight-line braking and ISO 3888 lane-change maneuver) are presented.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS) for motorcycles have already contributed significantly to the safety of powered two-wheelers (PTW) on public roads by improving bike stability and controllability in emergency braking situations.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In order to address further riding situations, another step forward has been achieved with Motorcycle Stability Control (MSC) system. By combining ABS, electronically combined braking system (eCBS), traction control and inertial sensors even in situations like braking and accelerating in corners the riders' safety can be improved. The MSC system controls the distribution of braking and traction forces using an algorithm that takes into account all available vehicle information from wheels, power train and vehicle attitude. With its ability to control fundamental vehicle dynamics, the MSC system will be a basis for further development and integration of comprehensive safety systems.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The contribution of ABS towards motorcycle safety has been confirmed by numerous international research studies, making it the safety technology with the highest possible benefit for motorcycles available today. Recent investigations by Bosch accident researchers show the contribution of the MSC system to further increase the safety benefit for motorcycle riders by extending the acceleration and braking control functions to cover more riding situations. The MSC systems could avoid more than every 3<sup>rd</sup> accident with casualties involving a motorcycle in Germany.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper focuses on these new motorcycle technologies developed with centralized system architecture and their safety benefits in preventing and mitigating motorcycle accidents with injuries and fatalities.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Basic requirements for a motorcycle brake system include achieving adequate deceleration and improving motorcycle stability during braking by easy operation. To help realize these requirements, Combined Brake System (CBS) and Antilock Brake System (ABS) for motorcycle have been researched and developed.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A new brake system which combines CBS with ABS has been recently researched and installed on a test motorcycle. The results of braking tests showed high performance in deceleration and good braking feeling especially during ABS actuation.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Various systems have been introduced recently in the automotive industry to improve the safety, ride and handling qualities of passenger vehicles, such as anti-lock braking system (ABS), active suspension system, four wheel steering system, traction control system, etc. Although each system has been shown to impose positive effects on the performance of a vehicle, the benefits of integrating various systems is yet to be determined.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A feasibility study was conducted of a new non-linear control law for integration of anti-lock braking system and active suspension system. The control law is based on the use of a candidate Lyapunov function. Lyapunov stability theorem is applied to synthesize the control law and the adaptation law necessary to estimate the unknown parameters of the vehicle/road system. The proposed MIMO non-linear control strategy can maintain desired values of various variables while estimating the unknown parameters of the system. The desired values for various states are obtained by solving an optimal control problem for a simple vehicle model. Simulations of braking maneuvers were conducted using a non-linear vehicle model together with a non-linear tire model. The preliminary study indicates that the controller designed is capable of maintaining desired front and rear wheel longitudinal slip values as well as generating sufficient suspension forces to minimize sprung mass vibrations.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper presents a new method for finding slip control law of Anti-lock Braking System (ABS), based on sliding mode control method . A four wheel car model with seven degrees of freedom is considered. Slip of each wheel is controlled separately so that it remains in the desired range for every kind of road condition, and by tuning desired slip undesired yaw on miu-split surfaces is prevented.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">An accurate estimate of vehicle speed is essential for optimal anti-lock braking system (ABS) calculations. Currently, most vehicles including heavy-duty class 8 trucks mainly rely on wheel speed sensors (WSS) to estimate velocity. However, as soon as braking is applied, WSS become inaccurate for determining the velocity due to the longitudinal slip developed in the tires. Using the inertial measurement unit (IMU) to estimate vehicle speed allows for its use in conjunction with the WSS to accurately calculate the slip ratio at each tire. These slip ratio values can then be used as the main control variable in the ABS algorithm to utilize the grip available more fully at each tire, to improve stopping distance and controllability. A steady state braking analysis model is developed and validated against Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 121 60-0 mph stopping distance data for a loaded class 8 tractor semi-trailer combination. Once the model is validated to show good correlation to measured deceleration data, it is used to estimate the theoretical peak steady state deceleration with the ideal slip ratio at each tire. Then a semi-empirical approach is used to consider current air brake system and ABS algorithm capabilities in the analysis. Lastly, the initial transient phase of 60-0 mph stop is accounted for to get a realistic stopping distance improvement estimate for a loaded heavy-duty truck.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This SAE Information Report provides information applicable to production Original Equipment Manufacturer antilock braking systems found on some past and current passenger cars and light trucks. It is intended for readers with a technical background.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">It does not include information about aftermarket devices or future antilock brake systems.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Information in this document reflects that which was available to the committee at the time of publication.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper deals with the use of SAE J1922 as a control data link. This application involves a direct data link connection between the ECU of an electronic engine and the ECU for an Antilock Braking System (ABS) with integrated Drive Slip Control-also referred to as Anti-wheel Spin Regulation (ASR), or as Automatic Traction Control (ATC).</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The application calls for an automatic reduction of engine output torque when the ABS/ATC controller determines excessive wheel spin has occurred. This most often occurs on slippery surfaces such as ice or snow when the vehicle is first started into motion, or on similarly slippery surfaces when accelerating or cornering. The engine torque reduction continues until wheel spin is brought within an acceptable limit. Control of engine output is then returned to the driver.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Extensive testing was conducted at WABCO's winter test site in northern Finland. It was necessary to determine tradeoffs on performance as data update rates were altered. For some applications where the J1922 data link was multiplexed on the same line as the J1587 diagnostic data link, bus utilization was a prime consideration. To minimize the bus usage, the J1922 commands were reduced to the minimum required.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Testing of the data link scheme was required to optimize the control algorithms. From a driver comfort perspective, harshness had to be eliminated in the control implementation to satisfy expectations and thus assure success of the system.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has developed moving deformable barriers for vehicle crash test procedures to assess vehicle and occupant response in partial overlap vehicle crashes.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">For this paper, based on the NHTSA Oblique Test procedure, a mid-size sedan was tested. The intent of this research was to provide insight into possible design changes to enhance the oblique collision performance of vehicles.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The test results predicted high injury risk for BrIC, chest deflection, and the lower extremities. In this particular study, reducing lower extremity injuries has been focused on. Traditionally, lower extremity injuries have been reduced by limiting the intrusion of the lower region of the cabin's toe-board.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In this study, it is assumed that increasing the energy absorbed within the engine compartment is more efficient than reinforcing the passenger compartment as a method to reduce lower extremity injuries. However, CAE analysis for the NHTSA Oblique test shows that reinforcing the engine compartment structure can result in an increase in vehicle aggressiveness.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">An issue is that the Research Moving Deformable Barrier (RMBD) Oblique Test will lead to an overall increase in vehicle aggressiveness. The RMDB oblique crash alone is not an effective assessment of collision compatibility.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper presents the engineering technology for the 1992 Corvette Acceleration Slip Regulation (ASR) system and Antilock Brake System (ABS).</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">After the introduction of Bosch 2S anti-lock brakes in the 1986 Corvette, we experienced an improvement in vehicle stability and steerability during hard braking. The next challenging task was to improve the vehicle's stability during acceleration.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The goal was to assist the driver of this high horse power front engine, rear wheel drive sports car on low coefficient surfaces. This goal was accomplished with the functional integration of engine torque management and brake intervention. This required functional integration of three subsystems: engine spark retard, throttle close down and brakes. This is the first application for a throttle close down device which provides driver feed back of slippery road conditions, through the accelerator pedal. The Bosch Corporation control strategies programmed into the electronic control unit (ECU), have enabled Corvette Engineering to enhance the vehicle acceleration and stability on a variety of road surfaces under difficult driving conditions. These control strategies were further optimized to provide balanced driving performances for winter, summer, fall and spring ambient conditions.</div>

Conversation with <scp>R</scp>obert <scp>V</scp>oas

&lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;A new type of torque transmit coupling has recently been developed for 4WD cars, that provides a better match to ABS, is of lighter weight, and uses a simpler operating mechanism. This coupling transmits torque with a multi-disc clutch that is engaged by the pressure of high viscosity silicone oil. The rotary blade generates variably the silicone oil pressure, according to both differential speed and direction of rotation between the front and rear wheels.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;This coupling provides a good match between 4WD performance and four wheel Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) by a modification of the rotary blade shape. No additional devices are needed.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;This paper describes the characteristics of this coupling and the in-vehicle performance.&lt;/div&gt;

Commentary: Alcohol and Motor Vehicle–Related Crashes—Driver Attitudes Need Further Intervention

&lt;div class="section abstract"&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;This Recommended Practice provides a taxonomy for motor vehicle &lt;i&gt;driving automation systems&lt;/i&gt; that perform part or all of the &lt;i&gt;dynamic driving task&lt;/i&gt; (&lt;i&gt;DDT&lt;/i&gt;) on a &lt;i&gt;sustained&lt;/i&gt; basis and that range in level from &lt;i&gt;no driving automation&lt;/i&gt; (level 0) to &lt;i&gt;full driving automation&lt;/i&gt; (level 5). It provides detailed definitions for these six levels of &lt;i&gt;driving automation&lt;/i&gt; in the context of &lt;i&gt;motor vehicles&lt;/i&gt; (hereafter also referred to as “&lt;i&gt;vehicle&lt;/i&gt;” or “&lt;i&gt;vehicles&lt;/i&gt;”) and their &lt;i&gt;operation&lt;/i&gt; on roadways. These level definitions, along with additional supporting terms and definitions provided herein, can be used to describe the full range of &lt;i&gt;driving automation features&lt;/i&gt; equipped on &lt;i&gt;motor vehicles&lt;/i&gt; in a functionally consistent and coherent manner. “On-road” refers to publicly accessible roadways (including parking areas and private campuses that permit public access) that collectively serve users of &lt;i&gt;vehicles&lt;/i&gt; of all classes and &lt;i&gt;driving automation&lt;/i&gt; levels (including no &lt;i&gt;driving automation&lt;/i&gt;), as well as motorcyclists, pedal cyclists, and pedestrians.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;The levels apply to the &lt;i&gt;driving automation feature(s)&lt;/i&gt; that are engaged in any given instance of on-road &lt;i&gt;operation&lt;/i&gt; of an equipped &lt;i&gt;vehicle&lt;/i&gt;. As such, although a given &lt;i&gt;vehicle&lt;/i&gt; may be equipped with a &lt;i&gt;driving automation system&lt;/i&gt; that is capable of delivering multiple &lt;i&gt;driving automation features&lt;/i&gt; that perform at different levels, the level of &lt;i&gt;driving automation&lt;/i&gt; exhibited in any given instance is determined by the &lt;i&gt;feature(s)&lt;/i&gt; that are engaged.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;This document also refers to three primary actors in &lt;i&gt;driving&lt;/i&gt;: the (human) &lt;i&gt;driver&lt;/i&gt;, the &lt;i&gt;driving automation system&lt;/i&gt;, and other &lt;i&gt;vehicle&lt;/i&gt; systems and components. These other &lt;i&gt;vehicle&lt;/i&gt; systems (or the &lt;i&gt;vehicle&lt;/i&gt; in general terms) do not include the &lt;i&gt;driving automation system&lt;/i&gt; in this model, even though as a practical matter a &lt;i&gt;driving automation system&lt;/i&gt; may actually share hardware and software components with other &lt;i&gt;vehicle&lt;/i&gt; systems, such as a processing module(s) or operating code.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;The levels of &lt;i&gt;driving automation&lt;/i&gt; are defined by reference to the specific role played by each of the three primary actors in performance of the &lt;i&gt;DDT&lt;/i&gt;. “Role” in this context refers to the expected role of a given primary actor, based on the design of the &lt;i&gt;driving automation system&lt;/i&gt; in question and not necessarily to the actual performance of a given primary actor. For example, a &lt;i&gt;driver&lt;/i&gt; who fails to &lt;i&gt;monitor&lt;/i&gt; the roadway during engagement of a level 1 adaptive cruise control (ACC) system still has the role of &lt;i&gt;driver&lt;/i&gt;, even while s/he is neglecting it.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;&lt;i&gt;Active safety systems&lt;/i&gt;, such as electronic stability control and automated emergency braking, and certain types of driver assistance systems, such as lane keeping assistance, are excluded from the scope of this &lt;i&gt;driving automation&lt;/i&gt; taxonomy because they do not perform part or all of the &lt;i&gt;DDT&lt;/i&gt; on a &lt;i&gt;sustained&lt;/i&gt; basis and, rather, merely provide momentary intervention during potentially hazardous situations. Due to the momentary nature of the actions of &lt;i&gt;active safety systems&lt;/i&gt;, their intervention does not change or eliminate the role of the &lt;i&gt;driver&lt;/i&gt; in performing part or all of the &lt;i&gt;DDT,&lt;/i&gt; and thus are not considered to be &lt;i&gt;driving automation&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class="htmlview paragraph"&gt;It should, however, be noted that crash avoidance features, including intervention-type &lt;i&gt;active safety systems&lt;/i&gt;, may be included in &lt;i&gt;vehicles&lt;/i&gt; equipped with &lt;i&gt;driving automation systems&lt;/i&gt; at any level. For &lt;i&gt;ADS&lt;/i&gt;-equipped &lt;i&gt;vehicles&lt;/i&gt; (i.e., levels 3-5) that perform the complete &lt;i&gt;DDT&lt;/i&gt;, crash avoidance capability is part of &lt;i&gt;ADS&lt;/i&gt; functionality.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;