E–learning and language change — Observations, tendencies and reflections

In 2013, the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council funded a 4-year project on the editorial and commercial history of the world’s oldest-surviving scholarly journal (‘Publishing the Philosophical Transactions: a social, cultural and economic history of a learned journal, 1665-2015’, AH/K001841). The project is led by Dr Aileen Fyfe at the University of St Andrews in partnership with the Royal Society. The project team convened a workshop at the Royal Society, 22 April 2016, on ‘The Politics of Academic Publishing, 1950-2016’. This briefing paper is informed by the contributions of those who attended that day, and we thank them for their insights. The authors of this briefing paper are a sub-group of those who attended the April 2016 workshop. This report is based upon the primary (historical) research of the Philosophical Transactions project team, combined with a literature review, and the expertise of the other authors (principally in higher education research, and in scholarly communication).

Few would deny that technological change has transformed both production and everyday life since pre-industrial times. The implications of this statement produce divergent opinions, however. Even if it is mostly agreed that everyday life has changed for the better, opinions differ on how technology has altered production, and continues to do so. For example, the inter-play between technological change and economic growth has been labelled a ‘black box’ (Rosenberg 1982; 1994). It is difficult to know what goes on inside the black box, and it is hard to find factors that determine technological change, or at least to find a linear relation between certain factors and the economic performance. Throughout history efforts have been made to incorporate technological or technical change into economics, but no coherent theory has earned universal consent.2 Mainstream economics have instead regarded technology as a given exogenous factor that greatly influences the economy but which is not itself affected by the economy. Recently this has changed among economists with the emergence of endogenous growth theory. For economic historians, however, technological change is an old issue. The present book is an attempt to combine different approaches to technological change. Common to these approaches is the dimension of time, whether nineteenth-century history or the more recent past.KeywordsHuman CapitalGross Domestic ProductTechnological ChangeTotal Factor ProductivityIndustrial RevolutionThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

While much has been written about Gibraltar from historical and political perspectives, sociolinguistic aspects have been largely overlooked. This book describes the influences which have shaped the colony’s linguistic development since the British occupation in 1704, and the relationship between the three principal means of communication: English, Spanish and the code-switching variant Yanito. The study then focuses its attentions on the communicative forms and functions of Gibraltarian English. The closing of the border between Gibraltar and Spain (1969-1982), which effectively isolated the colony, had important social and linguistic repercussions. This volume presents the first full account of the language attitudes and identity of a new generation of Gibraltarians, all of whom were born after the border was re-opened. Adopting a variationist approach, this study analyses the extent to which the language use and phonetic realisations of young Gibraltarians differ from those of previous generations and the factors conditioning language variation and change.

ABSTRACT: This paper examines the various connections four grammar books [J. Nesfield, Idiom, Grammar, and Synthesis for High Schools (1895); L. Tipping, Matriculation High School English Grammar of Modern English Usage (1933); P. C. Wren and H. Martin, High School English Grammar and Composition (1954); C. D. Sidhu, An Intensive Course in English (1976)] posit between the English language and Indian society. The sentences of Nesfield's text propagate the notion of British supremacy and impose a view of history which justifies colonial rule. It is a view which corresponds to the contemporary conception of English as an imposed foreign language, the language of political domination and a synonym for it. Tipping's position is that English is to be assimilated to the Indian context. The revised edition of Wren and Martin's grammar follows in the Tipping tradition. English is no longer seen as something imposed, but as something in the process of being Indianized. Sidhu's text is radically different from the others. It reveals a familiarity with the way life is experienced in India. Sidhu's grammar proves that English language teaching in India can be taught through and express Indian experiences. In so doing, the English language becomes the opposite of its historical role: a mode of communication which expresses Indians’ consciousness of themselves as citizens of an independent country.

This article is a response to to Piercey's (2000) Perspectives article "Sexism in the English Language" published in last issue of the TESL Canada Journal/La Revue TESL du Canada. Piercey says there is inherent sexism in the English language. This would mean that the language deliberately discriminates against one sex in favor of the other. But gender is not sex; sex is not gender. Gender rules in language have nothing to do with sex or sexism. In the five languages I speak, the rules of grammar dictate that the masculine noun or pronoun stands for both genders when no one person or thing is specified. As we used to say in high school, "Ladies first except in French grammar," which was a jocular way of reinforcing this grammatical rule. So first, let me clear up the increasingly prevalent incorrect use of the word gender. Again, gender is not synonymous with sex. Because the English language is less cursed with gender than many others, it is easy to forget that in the Romance languages everything-from tables and chairs to buildings and countries-has gender. To quote the redoubtable Fowler (1984), "gender, n., is a grammatical term only. To talk of persons or creatures of the masculine or feminine gender, meaning of the male or female sex, is either a jocularity (permissible or not according to context) or a blunder" (p. 211). People and animals are of the male or female sex. Male and female refer to sex, not gender, which is expressed three ways: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Masculine means "like a man," feminine means "like a woman," and neuter means "like neither." Once we start talking of male gender, female gender, and, uh, neuter gender, we are on a slippery slope of dehumanizing the human race. Or at least desexing it! Also, the use of gender seems to be a part of the political correctness movement, or perhaps it is just plain prudery and gender is used because in our sex-crazed world sex seems to refer only to the act of copulation. These days when I fill out a form that asks for my gender, I correct the word to sex and then write F. They want to know whether I am male or female, not whether I am feminine or otherwise. I no longer change gender to sex in the academic writing I edit, because I am outnumbered and I am tired of arguing. I agree with Piercey that sexism still permeates our world. Women have had a raw deal all through the centuries, and much needs to change before we can rest. For example, there are shelters for abused women and their

In this paper we would like to address the very old problem of grammatical borrowing. We will discuss this problem within the context of minority language studies. Is it possible that the grammatical system of a minority language changes by borrowing grammatical elements and/or grammatical principles from the dominant language? It seems to be natural to take the dutchification of Frisian as an example. Three cases of grammatical borrowing of Frisian from Dutch that have been proposed in the literature will be critically discussed: 1. the borrowing of verbal endings that is supposed to be responsible for transition of verbs from the -je class to the -e class; 2. the transition of the diminutive suffix -ke to -tsje; 3. changes in the word order of the Frisian verbal complex. We will argue that the grammatical system of Frisian does not dutchify. Furthermore this examination gives rise to some general conclusions concerning the ways in which minority languages can and cannot be influenced by dominant languages.

This study examines phonological and lexical change in Kudangan, a minority language spoken by the Dayak Tomun community in Central Kalimantan, and explores its implications for mother-tongue-based regional language education. Employing a qualitative linguistic approach, data were collected through purposive sampling involving community elders and fluent speakers, semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and lexical elicitation. Phonological analysis was conducted using segmental comparison and rule-based description, while lexical change was analyzed in terms of morphological restructuring and semantic shift. The findings reveal systematic sound correspondences, including vowel modification (e.g., /air/ → /arai/) and final consonant addition (e.g., /hujan/ → /hujant/), alongside patterned lexical variation reflecting sociocultural meaning and language contact. These results demonstrate that Kudangan maintains an internally coherent phonological and lexical system despite pressure from dominant languages. The study offers novel empirical documentation of an under-described Austronesian variety and provides a linguistic foundation for developing culturally responsive teaching materials and sustaining minority language transmission. Accordingly, phonological and lexical description is positioned not only as documentation but also as a strategic resource for regional language education and long-term language maintenance.

Recent developments in syntactic theory suggest that phrase structure is cross-linguistically more uniform than assumed so far, and that the order spec-head-complement may be the only permissible one. The present article takes issue with this view, showing that the derivation of final complementizers from initial ones by means of IP-raising faces serious difficulties. The discussion focuses on Bengali and similar languages which may be called ‘hybrid’ because both orders, IP-C as well as C-IP, are attested. Five arguments are raised which indicate that these orders are not derivationally connected. The discussion bears results which may also be of interest for linguistic typology, language change and acquisition.

The effectiveness of structured multidisciplinary rounding in acute care units on length of hospital stay and satisfaction of patients and staff: a systematic review protocol

Background. The training of communication skills in English is necessary both for the teaching activity of each student and for his professional development, a good specialist in the field of physical culture. The formative nature of university education is the reference framework of the initial vocational training system of the future sports teachers for efficient verbal communication in English in the international area, for a better cooperation of sports specialists. Studying a professional foreign language contributes to the development of professional abilities and attitudes by exploring the fields of other disciplines with different contents. In the process of teaching / learning English to students, professional competence is developed, but by reporting individual situations and activities of learning, reception and production, typically of foreign languages, to those of the mother tongue, a unitary conception is created about the functioning of the language as an essential element of communication. In this respect, there is a need to develop a model for the communication skills in English of students in the field of physical culture. Aim of research. Optimization the professional English language skills training process for students from Physical Education and Sports Faculties. Research objectives: 1. Studying the theory and practice of the educational process in the English discipline from the State University of Physical Education and Sports (SUPES). 2. Appreciation of the level of English professional language to SUPES students. 3. Determining the content of the English language course in order to build communication skills in foreign languages. 4. Acquisition of sports terminology and ability to read foreign literature. Research methodology. Analysis and generalization of literature, study of working documentation, pedagogical observation. Results. Using this communicative approach in teaching is that: learners learn from what they hear from the communicator, “their oral production” will be greatly increased, they will develop fluency and their level of motivation will increase. Conclusions. Foreign language is necessary to the future sports specialist not only as a means of selecting scientific information but also as a means of communication (in exchange of experience, in international sports competitions and for personal contacts, etc.). The training of English professional language to SUPES students helps in the knowledge and application of sports-pedagogical language, in the formation of general and special cognitive skills, on the basis of which they will undertake the learning and evaluation activity according to the requirements of the modernized curriculum in physical education.

abstractThis paper considers the interplay between technological discontinuities and competitive performance. Much of the work on technological discontinuities has focused on macro levels of analysis such as industries and technologies rather than specific firms. This study uses a historical perspective on Formula 1 motor racing to explore the dynamics between firm level performance and technological discontinuities over a 57 year period. The study supports the findings of previous research that incumbent firms are often unable to adapt to the impact of exogenous shocks. However the study also reveals situations where a relatively small number of firms are able to sustain their competitive superiority through a number of successive discontinuities. I suggest that, in addition to dynamic capabilities, these firms possess sustaining capabilities – munificent resource configurations which extend the time available for firms to adapt to technological changes – thereby allowing them to remain competitive across discontinuities.

Language has really changed in many aspects through the past hundred years or so. There are many factors due to which this transformation is seen in the present-day life in comparison with the more distant life; the modernization of the lives of the individuals as well as the communities around the globe, the invention of advanced technology in all fields of science, the awakening scientific discoveries and the rapidity of life has brought upon some coarse changes in languages, especially in English language. The purpose of this research is to know whether the language has really changed in terms of intonation throughout a few decades or not. For this purpose, some scenes from the modern movie have been taken into consideration. The analysis of the data has paved way for tremendous results and outcomes in the attitudinal function of intonation in the modern-day English that have been illustrated in both tabular and graphic form.
 This study definitively answered the question regarding changes in the intonation in English language through the past century.

Language is a communication tool that can be used to express thoughts and emotions. At the same time, it is also a symbol system carrying various information. Therefore, formation and development of language has marks of different aspects of social life, reflecting a distinctive culture of a certain society. As an influential religion in the western world, Christianity enriches English language. This paper illustrates the influence of Christianity on English from formation, specification and development. For Chinese English learners, it is inevitable to encounter Christianity while learning English. Therefore it also proposes some pieces of advice on English teaching and English learning. Introduction In ancient times, people worshiped ancestors, animals, nature as well as language. Religion formed and developed through language worshiping and utilizing. Symbolic characteristics of language have played significant role in transmission and evolvement of religion. No language, no religion. Meanwhile, religion helps to create and spread the language. Whenever there was religious reform, there would be great changes in language. Almost all religions all over the world would create a new language or use a dialect while writing their scriptures. With the spread of religion, that language was also spread. Judaism spread Aramaic, Hebrew, Aniohevotakh as well as Sephardi to different places all over the world from Palestine; Mohammedanism created by Mohammed spread Arabic with Koran to Europe, Asia as well as Africa from Southern part of Arabian Peninsula; Indian Buddhism spread Gautama as well as Sanskrit to China, Japan and so on. In addition, religion set a lot of rules for using language. As a main language of Christianity, English is deeply influenced by Christianity. With no doubt, it is beneficial to intercultural communication to analyze the influence of Christianity on English. Influence of Christianity on Old English Christianity was set up based on Greek and Latin which were regarded as a tool of transmitting its creed [1]. For this reason, these two old languages can survive from Germanic conquering. Since Roman Missionary Saint Augustine and his disciples spread Christianity to the British Isles in 597AD, Christianity and Latin culture have begun to infiltrate into English. With the popularization and deepening of Christianity, English has become more and more religious. Jespersen, a famous Danish linguist once said in Growth and Structure of English Language, religion has played a very important role in English development [2]. During more than 500 years from Christianity appearing in Britain to the end of Old English, churches blossomed in various places of Britain. Church schools emerged at this historic moment. As the language for sermon, Latin language and Latin culture infiltrated into English. These Latin words are related to religious equipments, rituals and so on. These words can be divided into two groups: (1) words whose religious meaning has not changed: temple, church, prayer, preach, sermon, nun, salvation, divine, etc.; (2) words whose religious meaning has changed: dogma, minister, mission, hood, sponsor, lecture, patron, etc. 2014 International Conference on Social Science (ICSS 2014) © 2014. The authors Published by Atlantis Press 303 Influence of Christianity on Modern English Modern English appeared in 16 century and at that time, Renaissance was sweeping continental Europe. Humanists in various countries fought against religious Theology with humanism of ancient Greece and Rome. Under the impact of this movement, British national consciousness was aroused. British humanist writers began to write with English instead of Latin. Old English had no norm at that time. These British humanists played an important role in specifying and unifying Old English and transforming Old English into Modern English. In addition, in 1611, Authorized Version came into being, which had an epoch-making meaning in English development history [3]. Including Old Testament and New Testament, Authorized Version was compiled with beautiful and simple prose. Its publication not only specified English, but also made English widely used in society. The success of Authorized Version laid the foundation for Modern English. Besides, another religious book named The Book of Common Prayer and Application of the Sacraments should be mentioned as well. These two books were widely read by all walks of life, no matter whether educated or uneducated. While giving remarks on these two books, Swift said that they became the standard of English, especially for common people [4]. The appearance of Authorized Version enlarged the influence of Christianity in English-speaking countries. In the book named The English Language, Ernest Weekley once remarked that apart from the books of Shakespeare, no other books have had such big influence as Authorized Version on English vocabulary [5]. It greatly contributed to enriching and perfecting Modern English.

India, the land of remarkable pluralism is a nest of multiple ethnicities, cultures, religions and languages. A country that holds onto its cultural and traditional roots deeply. India is a nation with a richness of languages that are known to honour both the elderly and younger ones. Where the proverb goes like ‘Kos kos par badle paani, chaar kos par badle vaani.’ This holds the literal explanation and meaning that every few kilometres, a new language changes, similar to how water does! Enveloped by the mighty Himalayas in the North, the Southern Indian Ocean, Khasi and Eastern Mizo Hills and Karakoram in the West; India once caught the attention of the world for its riches and so was known as the ‘golden bird’. The British Raj then confined this bird and imposed English as the official language throughout their control. Indian culture, already renowned for its diversity, had a profound impact made on it by English, beginning from this point. As language serves a vital function in shaping identity, this paper probes into the evolution of English in India. Covering from its introduction in the 16th century during the Mughal Empire to its large-scale acceptance. The purpose of the paper is to investigate the development and progress of English in India. Furthermore, it outlines how English has influenced India and explores and examines Indian identity and Indianness in Indian English.

998 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Rowley follows this theme throughout the book, contending that Newlands’s connection to the Sharon family made his political ac­ ceptance in Nevada difficult. His legal defense of the Sharon estate following his father-in-law’s death earned him a reputation as a de­ fender of private wealth and privilege, a difficult notion for many Nevadans to dismiss. Yet despite Rowley’s repeated description of Nevada as a political “rotten borough,” he defends Newlands as having a conscience that disallowed the purse-string, behind-the-scenes participation that such an atmosphere often required. He portrays Newlands instead as a man who de-emphasized party affiliation (even switching to the Republican camp for a short time) and strove for political success without the use of the purse. Although Newlands succumbed to the system on occasion, Row­ ley’s portrayal of Newlands’s identification with issues instead of party rings true. Newlands’s strong support first of the remonetiza­ tion of silver and eventually of its free coinage, a protectionist policy (even though he officially belonged to a party dedicated to free trade), the Australian ballot and the referendum, and nationalized irrigation and nationally incorporated railroad systems (despite the official Democratic embrace of local control and states rights) all point to a man dedicated to principle and ideology. Rowley provides a clear picture ofNewlands’s role in the convoluted problems of the 1890s, not the least ofwhich was the silver issue and its effect on the Democratic party. But perhaps Rowley’s greatest accomplishment lies in the expansive overview we get of Newlands’s life. No longer will Newlands be seen narrowly through the lens of irrigation but instead as part of a larger American movement. Jennifer Holweger Ms. Holweger is a historical consultant for environmental litigation in San Fran­ cisco. Coordination and Information: Historical Perspectives on the Organization of Enterprise. Edited by Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Daniel M. G. Raff. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. Pp. viii+337; il­ lustrations, tables, notes, bibliography, index. $68.00 (cloth); $22.50 (paper). In recent years, historians, economists, and management profes­ sors have embarked on a quest to go inside the black box of the business firm. Their mentors are Alfred Chandler and Oliver Wil­ liamson. Their argot includes “transactions costs,” “informational asymmetries,” and “principal-agent opportunism.” Despite the high start-up costs of mastering the theory, historians of technology would find it profitable to enter this market. Coordination, a term never quite defined but one which cogno­ TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 999 scenti will intuitively understand, is one of the literature’s principle concerns. Most economic activity, the editors of this volume note, involves some coordination of resources, organizations, or people. But coordination can be effected in a variety of ways, by a variety of institutions. Those under study here are business firms; government or other nonprofit agencies only form the context in which private coordination activity takes place. The essays are divided into three parts, and each essay is matched with a comment. First, we go inside the firm. Daniel Raff examines changes in com­ pensation schemes at interwar automobile firms. Daniel Nelson re­ views the history of industrial engineering. Both aim to explain why compensation plans for production workers changed and varied. Raff links the shift from piecework to hourly wages with changes in technology and assembly line techniques, which placed a premium on coordinated activity, not individual effort. Nelson gives more weight to the diffusion ofideas from efficiency experts. He notes that the dicta ofFrederick Taylor and his disciples were never purchased wholesale by firms but rather modified and adapted to suit individ­ ual companies’ needs. In his comment to Nelson’s paper, Michael Piore lays out nicely the historical issues at stake. Coauthor of the influential Second Industrial Divide (with Charles F. Sabel; New York: Basic Books, 1984), Piore stresses the difference between American mass production and the systems offlexible specialization that arose in Europe and Japan. Raff and Nelson, on the other hand, offer examples of diversity even during America’s mass production hey­ day. This debate, now taking place across the economic and business history literature, will enliven...