Editors’ note: Multilingualism and teaching grammar in the foreign language classroom

Littlewood’s early stance on the use of students’ first language (L1) in the foreign language (L2) classroom was that maximum use of the target language (TL) enhances language acquisition. He suggested that this precept has been pervasive in every communicatively-oriented language teaching method and has also been widely accepted in official curricula in a range of contexts due to an understanding that TL use should be normative in classroom interactions. A strong rationale for advocating this ‘monolingual principle’ has been that, for many students, the L2 classroom provides the only opportunity to be exposed to the TL. Littlewood and Yu (2011. First language and target language in the foreign language classroom. Language Teaching 44, no. 1: 64–77) recognised, however, that teachers and students do make use of students’ L1 in L2 classrooms and suggested several ways in which teachers might do this legitimately. Furthermore, Littlewood (e.g. 2014. Communication-oriented language teaching: where are we now? Where do we go from here? Language Teaching 47, no. 3: 349–362) conceded that exclusive TL use has become subject to active questioning in recent years. The phenomenon of translanguaging takes arguments that support L1 use beyond Littlewood’s earlier suggestions. There are also implications for TBLT where extensive L2/TL use is the default position but where translanguaging practices are not necessarily at odds with the central task construct. This paper explores translanguaging in the contexts of TBLT and the monolingual principle.

Writing is a skill which is actively taught in both first (L1) and foreign language (FL) classrooms, yet surprisingly few cross-curricular links are made. This paper, aimed at both practitioners and researchers, presents a framework for designing and implementing a strategy-based, cross-curricular approach to writing pedagogy in schools. It first considers the factors which should be taken into account when designing such an intervention in both L1 and FL classrooms. It then outlines the key steps in the implementation of such a programme of strategy-based instruction. To exemplify this, the paper reports on data throughout from an empirical study involving a classroom intervention of explicit strategy-based instruction which was delivered first in the German FL classroom, and later also in the English classroom of a Year 9 (age 13–14) class in a secondary school in England. The aim was to help students to develop their writing strategies and to encourage transfer between languages. Findings suggest that while a programme of strategy-based instruction can improve strategy use and attainment in writing within a particular language context, effects are most powerful when there is collaboration between L1 and FL teachers. Evidence therefore calls for a multilingual approach to writing pedagogy. <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><img alt="Creative Commons Licence" style="border-width:0" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/80x15.png" /></a><br />This work is licensed under a <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.

In this article, I describe an online intercultural citizenship experience in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom in Argentina. An action research project on the Malvinas/Falklands war fought between Argentina and the UK in 1982 was carried out in 2012. Through a comparative methodology involving Argentine and English foreign language classes, students develop a critical perspective on texts while they also create an international identification, different from their national/regional identifications. While the existing body of work on intercultural citizenship and criticality in the foreign language classroom is abundant in Europe, North America and Asia, empirical studies hardly exist in this region and one of the questions to be answered deals with the transferability of curriculum research across continents. After a description of the theoretical framework and the project itself, I present student samples and analysis that provide evidence that this intercultural citizenship project was fruitfully implemented for the first time in Argentinean Higher Education in the foreign language classroom. I then outline the significance of the project from the point of view of online intercultural communication and the theory of intercultural citizenship.

The use of the first language (L1) in the English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom is becoming an on-going debate. A newly growing view to the use of L1 in the foreign language (FL) classroom called translanguaging views that by utilizing the L1 along with the TL in FL classroom is considered as functional practice of languages rather than an impediment in FL learning. Accordingly it is necessary to find out the functions of teachers’ practice of translanguaging in the EFL classroom since this view has not been much researched yet. Related to this, the current study was intended to find out the functions of the EFL teachers’ translanguaging and to find out the teachers’ reasons for the use of translanguaging. This study followed qualitative descriptive interactive research design, and the subjects consisted of three English teachers at the 7th grade classes at two junior high schools in Singaraja. The data were collected through observations and interviews and were analyzed descriptive qualitatively. The results of this study showed that there were 3 functions of translanguaging. The most frequent function was related to knowledge construction, followed by classroom management, and interpersonal relations. There were 9 reasons for the teachers’ use of translanguaging, namely: to facilitate students’ understanding, to provide L1 and TL comparison, to elicit students’ responses, to attract students’ attention, tomanage students, to promote discipline, to develop deeper personal relationship, to create secure classroom atmosphere, and to make the class more interesting. In sum, the use of translanguaging plays a number of functions in the EFL classroom but it should be considered also the ‘optimal’ use of it in EFL learning process because the overuse of L1 might bring negative impact.

This study explores the effect of the use of the target language (TL) and the first language (L1) during grammar instruction in the foreign language classroom. There is limited evidence regarding the effect of language of instruction on TL acquisition (Tian & Macaro, 2012; Viakinnou-Brinson, Herron, Cole, & Haight, 2012; Antón & DiCamilla, 1999). However, this area warrants further research. As such, the present study investigates teacher language use (Spanish-only, English-only, or no restriction) during the explicit instruction of Spanish object pronouns (direct, indirect, and both combined) to measure the effect of each language condition on students’ object pronoun performance. In addition, through the use of student questionnaires and class observations, this investigation sheds light on students’ preferences and attitudes about instructor TL and L1 use. The participants came from three separate classes of an intensive beginning Spanish course. Each class was randomly assigned one of three instructional language conditions: one group of students received instruction in English (L1), another in Spanish (L2) and the third group received instruction with no language restriction. All groups completed three separate immediate posttests—one for each of the targeted pronominal forms—followed by a delayed posttest covering all three forms. This data was then analyzed in SPSS using a One-way ANOVA. Three main results emanated from this study: (a) No statistically significant results at immediate testing. (b) No statistically significant results at the delayed posttest. (c) General preference for instruction using both the L1 and L2. However, the descriptive results suggest an advantage for L1 instruction due to the higher percentages at testing time with the groups that received instruction in English. Using both quantitative and qualitative data gathering techniques, this investigation enabled a better understanding of the impact of language of instruction for both immediate gains and retention of the targeted grammar structure, thereby expanding the lack of empirical research on this topic.

When it comes to communication, speaking is a popular way to express oneself. The continuous experience of researchers involved in this study has shown that most students are unsuccessful or face problems with speaking skills. They encountered difficulties communicating themselves effectively and efficiently or even communicating in simple day-to-day English. This emphasizes the need for the active participation of learners in the process of learning. One such learner-centric and learning-centric method is Task-Based Language Teaching, which requires students to finish tasks that are significant to them as a part of the learning process. Learning through tasks emphasizes the utilization of language for the sake of meaningful communication. A communication method called task-based language teaching (TBLT) has been extensively used in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms. It has been demonstrated to be of considerable use in enhancing the communication abilities of students receiving instruction. Trying to understand better how tasks influence students’ desire to speak English and their spoken engagement with one another in the classroom, this research set out to answer these questions. The sample size of participants in the study included ninety adolescents who were students at Parul University. Their feedback indicated that the tasks were beneficial, both in terms of increasing their oral interaction in English and their enthusiasm to speak English in class.

This article presents findings from a case study within a broader research project that explored the impact of a teacher education module on the development of six pre-service teachers’ (PSTs) competencies for integrating technology-mediated language learning tasks into young learner English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms. Conducted over a 15-week undergraduate course, the module followed the principles of a sociocultural approach to L2 teacher education (Johnson, 2015) and was offered consecutively for two semesters at a German university specializing in teacher education. Specifically, this article spotlights the development of Julia, one of the participants, detailing her evolving understanding of technology-mediated language learning tasks through various assignments within the module. The objectives of the study were: first, to trace Julia’s evolving understanding of the concept of technology-mediated language learning tasks and, secondly, to discuss how the teacher education activities created space for strategic mediation that facilitated her learning processes. Data were collected through in-depth individual interviews, video-recorded school lessons, audio recordings of seminar sessions, and analysis of an 80-page reflective report submitted by Julia. The findings indicate Julia’s shift from solely concentrating on technology to recognizing the crucial role of pedagogical design in maximizing technology-mediated task-based language teaching (TBLT) benefits.

This chapter examines English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms in Germany, emphasizing second language (L2) development and feedback through an Intelligent Language Tutorial System (ILTS). Acknowledging the challenges of individualized instruction, the chapter proposes ILTSs as a solution. The focus is on The FeedBook, an ILTS integrated with the EFL syllabus. Results from its implementation phases demonstrate the efficacy of scaffolded feedback, especially for less proficient students. The FeedBook’s potential for inclusive practices, transferability of language gains, and support for implicit learning skills in adolescents are explored. The study contributes to the literature on technology-supported feedback and learner engagement in digitally enhanced language learning. It concludes by calling for continued exploration and development in digitally supported foreign language instruction.

The relationship between time lapse between introducing lexical advance organizers and video viewing, and comprehension in a foreign language classroom

This special issue of Language Learning & Technology looks at evaluating multimedia software.Where does the Internet fit into this picture?When we talk about multimedia in the foreign language (FL) classroom, we are often primarily concerned with the use of authentic materials that make the target language culture seem more real to students.Digitizing the images, sound, and video that represent multimedia can facilitate their distribution.However, digitized multimedia files tend to be quite large, and on the net, large files mean slow going.Can we really do multimedia on the World Wide Web? How is the quality?Does it require a fast connection or can a dial-up connection suffice?In this column we look at several web sites that are intended to help FL teachers learn about using and even making multimedia materials, and then explore a few sites that use online multimedia.Please note that several of these sites were, in fact, created by the authors, who teach a course in multimedia development.2. Where can I find information about multimedia and its uses on the Internet?Although many articles exist that deal with the uses of multimedia in a classroom setting, the vast majority of these sources are found in traditional hard copy venues: magazines, newspapers, journal articles, and books.Nevertheless, some authors have noted the irony in this and have placed some

This chapter addresses the issue of how unplanned focus on formis accomplished in an English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom and its effect on adolescents’ learning outcomes. The findings support previous research indicating that adolescents benefit from interaction in foreign language classrooms as well as claims that for adolescents, as with adults, focus on form is an effective means of raising awareness of lexical items. Findings also suggest that the relationship between noticing, uptake and longer-term learning requires more research with this population in order to better understand the processes.

The aim of the present study is to evaluate the effectiveness of teacher-student interaction in promoting authentic L2 classroom discourse. Classroom discourse is a major part of instruction that promotes speaking and develops students and teachers’ conversational skills. It constitutes a significant factor in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom, as it promotes communicative activities (reception, production, interaction, mediation) fundamental to L2 learning. A common exchange pattern used extensively in classroom discourse is the Initiation, Response, Feedback (IRF) model in which the teacher initiates (I) an exchange through questioning the whole class or one single student, the student responds (R) to the question, and then the teacher gives feedback (F). A qualitative case study approach was adopted. Twenty-seven EFL high school classrooms in Israel were observed. Research instruments were classroom observation forms, filled by the researcher, where instances of IRF exchanges were marked; and semi-structured interviews with seven of the teachers observed to obtain information regarding their use of L1 in IRF exchanges. Findings show that teachers use the IRF exchange model to organize talk and follow basic turn taking rules. However, deviations from common exchanges result in (1) imbalance of dominance between teacher and student talk time; (2) excessive use of L1 in exchanges, minimizing students’ exposure to L2; and (3) limited flow of teacher-student spoken communication and lack of student willingness to participate in the lesson. Practical implications for teacher educators will be discussed.

Infusing creative pedagogy into an English as a foreign language classroom: Learning performance, creativity, and motivation

This study investigates a teacher’s L1 use during focus-on-form episodes (FFEs). FFEs assist L2 learning by bringing learners’ attention to language. We studied the language used in FFEs in a Spanish as a foreign language (SFL) classroom to better understand the pedagogical purposes of L1 use in the classroom. We video-recorded 12 hours of an intermediate-high SFL classroom with an L1 English teacher at a US university. The audio data was segmented into FFEs and then coded (English L1, Spanish L2, mix) to reflect the language used in each of the teacher’s utterances. We also identified the linguistic areas (e.g., grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation) targeted in the FFEs. Chi-square and descriptive statistics were used to understand the relationship between the teacher’s language and the linguistic areas. Lastly, using the same data set, we conducted a qualitative analysis in order to depict the situations in which the teacher employed the L1 and L2. There was a significant relationship between the teacher’s language and the FFEs’ linguistic areas. Specifically, the L1 and L2 were used equally when FFEs concerned vocabulary and grammar. However, when FFEs concerned semantics, frequent code-switching occurred. The qualitative data illustrate that the language choice may depend on the interactional patterns and the complexity of the linguistic structure.

In this article I investigate how Japanese students manage interaction together in a task-based English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom. Using methods from conversation analysis and focusing on the contextual dimensions of language, I analyse data from a real classroom task with a view to understanding the ways in which social processes and the wider cultural context are connected to the production of classroom language. Through my analysis I suggest that differing cultural beliefs and expectations regarding classroom practice, as well as pedagogic action, affect communicative behaviour in the classroom. I also suggest that students are as much attending to interpersonal and social goals during task performance as they are to the institutional requirements of the task. While my interpretation is subjective in nature and particular to this context, I hope that the discussion will provoke any practitioner reading this article to reflect critically upon the language produced in their own classroom context.