Elementary school principals and informal learning: leveraging networks

Research reflecting the preparation, experiences, and attitudes of effective school leaders of students with disabilities is scarce despite the fervent federal requirements changing special education over the past four decades. Although there is extensive literature on perspectives and contexts of disability, the legislative journey toward special education, inclusion and educational leadership, the expanding role of the principalship, principal attitudes on inclusion, and preparing educational leaders for inclusive education, a review of the related literature revealed an absence of the skill-set and disposition needed by school leaders who are improving academic achievement for students with disabilities. This qualitative dissertation study documents and examines the preparation, experiences, and attitudes of two elementary school principals that have demonstrated success at improving student achievement among their special education population. The questions guiding this study are: (1) In what way does a school leader's leadership preparation program impact the education of students with disabilities? (2) In what way does a school leader's leadership experience impact the education of students with disabilities? (3) In what ways do a school leader's attitudes and perceptions impact the education of students with disabilities? Using a qualitative research methodology and narrative inquiry research methods, this study aims to capture the lived experiences and perspectives of such leaders. In-depth interviews, field notes, site observations, and reflexive journaling were used to illustrate and examine the dispositions of the school leaders. This study is important because it will provide insight to those concerned about what is essential to make an education for students with disabilities not only an accessible one, but a quality one. It will also guide educational leadership programs in developing curricula for future school leaders as they face the challenges of implementing state and federal policy. It also adds to the growing literature in the fields of educational leadership and special education.

In recent decades, educators and policymakers in the United States have increased their focus on Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) learning opportunities both in school and in informal learning environments outside of school. Informal STEM learning can take place in varied settings and involves a variety of STEM domains (e.g., engaging in engineering practices in a construction exhibit at a museum; talking about math during book reading at home). Here we provide a selective review of the literature on informal STEM learning to illustrate how these educational experiences are crucial for efforts to increase early STEM learning even before children reach school age. Leveraging cognitive and learning science research to inform policy, we make three recommendations to advance the impact of informal STEM learning: 1) integrate cognitive and learning science–based learning practices into informal learning contexts, 2) increase accessibility and diversity of informal STEM experiences, and 3) create explicit connections and coherence between formal and informal STEM learning opportunities in early childhood education.

Informal learning environments, like libraries and museums, are known to improve student achievement and motivation (Bartels 2001). A meta-analysis reports on the strong positive effects of after-school programs on feelings and attitudes and school performance (Durlak et al, 2007). When working on after-school programs, middle and high school students may develop skills like communication, collaboration, creativity, critical thinking, information literacy, and digital literacy. Such a program was offered by a 501c(3) organization as an informal learning opportunity. As part of this program, high school student volunteers living in the United States (US) designed and delivered learning experiences for elementary and middle school students living in rural regions in India. Adult volunteers supervised and helped coordinate these events that were delivered virtually on WhatsApp and Zoom. This brief provides preliminary observational results to answer the questions: How effective were the informal learning opportunities (a) in changing environmental sustainability related attitudes and behaviors and (b) in gaining 21st century skills for student volunteers in the US and the students from rural India.

Background and objectives: All health and social care professionals learn on the job through both formal and informal learning processes, which contributes to continuous professional development (CPD). This study explored workplace learning in General Practices, specifically looking at the role of informal learning and the workplace practices that appear to support or restrict that learning, as well as how technology was integrated into these learning processes.Methods: Three focus groups with general practitioners, practice nurses, managerial and administrative staff were conducted followed by twelve individual semi-structured interviews with participants drawn from the focus groups. Three observations of multi-disciplinary team meetings were used to establish potential team-based learning activities.Results: Triggers for informal workplace learning included patients presenting challenging or unusual conditions; exposure to others’ professional practice; and policy driven changes through revised guidance and protocols. By exploring how these triggers were acted upon, we identified mechanisms through which the primary care workplace supports or restricts informal learning through working practices, existing technologies and inter-professional structures.Conclusion: Informal workplace learning was identified as arising from both opportunistic encounters and more planned activities, which are both supported and restricted through a variety of mechanisms. Maximising informal learning opportunities and removing barriers to doing so should be a priority for primary care practitioners, managers and educators.

Formal and informal online learning spaces have evolved into important sources of knowledge that are accessible to many, require limited mobility, and provide ubiquitous learning opportunities. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has led to a major jump in the increase of online learning to make learning available, accessible, and possible to the diverse learner population globally. Reducing the gender divide in access to knowledge and information has been the goal of many initiatives, and understanding how access has evolved and improved women’s opportunities to learn and be empowered is key to analyze the changing society. Women are empowered when they have access to learning and access is enhanced through the use of formal and informal online learning spaces and programs. With the knowledge gained, women’s capability is boosted with informed choices, active roles in the workforce, advancement in academics, and increased participation in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) education. Online learning can encourage and motivate women to actively participate in social or cultural movements as well as modify their roles as childbearers, caregivers, and home managers. Women empowerment and gender equality has been the focus of research for decades, but with the rise and availability of ubiquitous learning possibilities, women empowerment through the utilization of online learning opportunities is becoming an area that has much need for understanding. In the past, women were more passive about their marginalized position in society. However, women in the 21st century are more aware and active, and are disrupting their marginalized status with their increased use of digital spaces and online learning possibilities. They explore different sources of knowledge and information and join in different online education opportunities for formal and informal learning. Women not only empower themselves with the exploration of online resources but also others when they teach online, actively share information on social media, and participate in online discussion forums.

We propose a thematic literature review of informal learning and library provision in United States carceral facilities over the last fifty years of mass incarceration (1974 to 2024). We will explore the reported impacts of library provision and informal learning opportunities in carceral facilities--i.e. recreational reading and non-credit bearing programs--on recidivism rates. We anticipate finding a general consensus among library, information, and education scholars and practitioners that increased opportunities for informal learning results in reduced recidivism rates, but we hypothesize that there is a lack of conclusive evidence of a causal relationship due to small sample sizes for each study or article and the likelihood that carceral and detention facility librarians and lifelong education providers rarely track recidivism at the facility level. We will gather information about how recidivism has been discussed in research and practice in the American context from scholarly publications such as Library Quarterly and The Journal of Prison Education Research (formerly The Journal of Prison Education and Reentry), and relevant trade publications such as the American Library Association's magazine, and policy documents. Despite expectations of evidentiary gaps, particularly regarding the impact of such informal learning on recidivism, we hope to identify promising interventions in the literature, and build a foundation for future research, and evidence-based practice.

BackgroundMorning reports are an essential component of physicians’ daily work. Attending morning reports is prioritized by junior doctors as it provides them with an opportunity to learn diagnostic reasoning through discussion of cases. While teaching formats during morning reports have previously been reported, an in-depth analysis of what learning opportunities exist, e.g., how teaching is enacted during morning reports, is lacking. This qualitative study explores learning opportunities during morning reports.MethodsWe used an explorative design based on video-recordings of 23 morning reports from two surgical departments, an internal medicine department and an emergency department. We used thematic analysis combined with and inspired by Eraut’s theoretical framework of workplace learning.ResultsBoth formal and informal learning opportunities were identified. Formal learning opportunities had the character of planned teaching activities, and we identified four themes: (1) modes of teaching, (2) structure, (3) presenter role, and (4) participant involvement. Informal learning, on the other hand, was often implicit and reactive, while deliberate learning opportunities were rare. The data showed many missed opportunities for learning.ConclusionBoth formal and informal learning opportunities are present during morning reports. However, a prevalent focus on medical topics exists, leaving other important aspects of the medical role under-discussed. Pedagogical methods could be employed more optimally, and harnessing the potential of missed opportunities should be encouraged.

Despite the ubiquity of smartphones, no studies to date have investigated family smartphone practices in informal learning environments, notwithstanding museum app studies. Yet, the importance of parent-child interactions for children’s informal learning is well-established. This multi-method pilot study described whether and how families used smartphones during informal learning, assessed fidelity of parental self-reported smartphone use, and compared the quantity and quality of parent-child conversations by smartphone use. Participants were 79 children and parents at a local aquarium. Parents self-reported demographics, amount of smartphone use, and verbal engagement with child. With a subset of families, researchers used systematic observations to document smartphone use and parent-child engagement and audio recording for parent-child conversations. The authors assessed conversation quality by coding verbatim transcripts for parent and child responsiveness and contingency. Triangulation of measures revealed that parents underreported and underestimated their device use. Fifty-five percent of families used a smartphone, primarily for photo and video documentation. More smartphone-using adults reported off-topic talk than did smartphone-free adults (p = .001), and the more parents used their smartphones, the less contingent were their conversations (p = .004). That parents and children were less contingent, and thus less sensitive, at the turn-by-turn conversational level adds to the scarce microanalytic work demonstrating how parent smartphone use impacts the moment-to-moment interactions of parents and children. Such differences in the quantity and quality of language interactions have important implications for the developmental and educational trajectories of children whose families vary in degree of smartphone use during informal learning opportunities.

This paper looks at how mobile and social technologies are influencing informal learning in the context of online community membership. The development of mobile technologies that use Global Positioning System (GPS) data to pinpoint geographical location together with the rapidly evolving Web 2.0 technologies supporting the creation and consumption of content suggest a potential for collaborative informal learning linked to location. The research described in this paper asks whether these technologies can provide an effective focus for community activities and, if so, whether this combination of location-awareness, mobile, and Web 2.0 technology results in the creation of novel informal learning opportunities. The community selected for study was the Geocaching community, a geographically dispersed group who use mobile and Web 2.0 technologies to link the virtual social spaces of the Internet with the physical spaces that surround them.

This article reports a case study on a popular informal science learning community via social media in China, named GuoKr (meaning “nutshell” in English). Data were collected through a variety of Chinese social media and social networking sites, web-based community portals, and discussion boards. Content analyses and data mining were conducted to investigate how GuoKr successfully attracted and engaged public in informal learning on scientific topics in particular. The study found three key characteristics that contributed to the success of such learning communities: (a) utilizing a variety of social media to empower participants with just-in-time, accidental learning opportunities; (b) daily tweets related to emerging or ongoing social events or hot topics to provide brief but intriguing knowledge “bites”, which often leads to extended readings and related resources; and (c) the integration of social media and traditional face-to-face local events to engage the public in science-related learning and knowledge sharing. Practical and research implications are discussed with suggestions for future research as related to ubiquitous learning communities for informal science learning.

Today, rapid change is a constant challenge in the workplace, and thousands of individuals need to be involved in continuous learning. Traditional training approaches, however, do not emphasise informal and incidental learning. Furthermore, since informal learning us seldom designed, learning outside of a structured experience may lead to mistaken or dysfunctional learning. Strategies for improving informal learning are urgently needed. This book, first published in 1990, responds to this need by taking a challenging look at many assumptions about workplace learning outside of the classroom and by proposing methods to improve it. They develop a theory of informal and incidental workplace learning based on current developments in training and human resource development which they illustrate with readable and illuminating case studies which tell vivid stories of adult education and human resource development practice. Informal and Incidental Learning in the Workplace is essential reading for researchers and practitioners of human resource development, and also for students of education and adult learning.

This chapter focuses on stimulating informal learning through active audience participation. It looks at the way informal museum audiences engage with museum content, the nature of the 'traditional' museum approach to informal learning, the contrasting agendas of audiences and museums, and the importance of research on the long-term impact of the visit. The chapter discusses the potential for digital learning before concluding with reference to the impact on formal learning in the museum. An important minority of museum users seek an 'informed and reflective adult learning experience' that enables them to interact internally with the art or objects in an 'intra-personal way'. McIntyre demonstrates that there is nothing passive about those seeking a deep learning and/or aesthetic experience but rather a 'desire to be involved in a self-exploratory manner'. The digital revolution and rise of participatory cultures bring remarkable new informal learning opportunities.

Twitch.tv is a live streaming platform that typically caters to videogaming and other social conversational communities, however, there is a growing sub-section of live streamers that focus on STEM topics and software and game development. The Software and Game Development category features developers from all over the world live streaming coding and other aspects of the development cycle for all to watch. Live streaming platforms like Twitch and YouTube have seen significant increases in viewership hours since 2020, with over 40% increase in viewership between 2020 and 2021. Prior work was shown that developers who choose to live stream do so as a way of holding themselves accountable to work, continue their education, find a community in which they can build and participate in, and have visibility and feedback on their work. In this paper we aim to investigate what types of interactions between streamers and their viewers, what types of knowledge is transferred in these interactions, how they lead to informal learning opportunities within these streams, and if these opportunities affect real time problem solving for streamers. Additionally, we aim to define the different types of interactions within the stream and how they lend themselves to forming an informal learning environment. We have obtained over 50 hours of live streams from Twitch.tv and YouTube to analyze the types of interactions during the stream, whether or not they are streamer or viewer initiated, and if they lead into being an informal learning opportunity. We are currently in the middle of analysis, but have defined several types of interactions on stream -- information seeking, expressions of opinion, entertainment, information sharing, and general social conversations. These interactions may be about what the streamer is currently working on, or interestingly, are seemingly "off-topic" but computing related questions that viewers seek the answer to or validation for from the streamers. From this paper we aim to situate live streaming within software development education through the lens of informal learning and emphasize how opportunities like these are an invaluable resource for novice and experienced developers alike.

Technological innovations are changing the way education is delivered. With instructional media evolving at an exponential pace, instructional designers and educators have a variety of options when deciding what tools are best for delivering their instruction. Simulation and virtual environments are a growth area in aviation, defense, crisis management, medicine, and customer service, but the utilization of this technology in the field of educational leadership or in principal preparation programs is very much in an embryonic stage. In this chapter, the authors first provide a summary of the evolution of scenario simulation in the field of educational leadership, and develop ‘learning principles' for evaluating the effectiveness of the simulation in delivering discrete learning outcomes. They then provide a specific example of an innovative educational leadership program that is utilizing a specific virtual environment; introduce TLE TeachLivE™ (TeachLivE) as a method to help prepare future leaders for practice. Finally, they discuss professional avenues to consider while cultivating the advancement of TeachLivE™ as a supplemental method for learning.

Technological innovations are changing the way education is delivered. With instructional media evolving at an exponential pace, instructional designers and educators have a variety of options when deciding what tools are best for delivering their instruction. Simulation and virtual environments are a growth area in aviation, defense, crisis management, medicine, and customer service, but the utilization of this technology in the field of educational leadership or in principal preparation programs is very much in an embryonic stage. In this chapter, the authors first provide a summary of the evolution of scenario simulation in the field of educational leadership, and develop ‘learning principles' for evaluating the effectiveness of the simulation in delivering discrete learning outcomes. They then provide a specific example of an innovative educational leadership program that is utilizing a specific virtual environment; introduce TLE TeachLivE™ (TeachLivE) as a method to help prepare future leaders for practice. Finally, they discuss professional avenues to consider while cultivating the advancement of TeachLivE™ as a supplemental method for learning.