Encyclopedia of Language Development

Language negotiations facilitate second language acquisition (SLA) in both face-to-face (FTF) and computer-mediated interactions. Research shows that dyadic type can impact the quantity and quality of negotiations. Although both learner (L)-learner and native speaker (NS)-L dyadic type interactions have shown to be beneficial to SLA, it is still unclear which dyadic type is more effective for second language (L2) development in FTF and computer-mediated interactions. To fill this gap, this quantitative study compares FTF versus text-synchronous-computer-mediated communication (SCMC) task-based interactions by examining the following question: Is there a significant difference in the (1) frequency of negotiations and (2) effect of negotiations on subsequent L2 development in FTF interactions compared with text-SCMC in the following three dyadic types: NS-low-proficiency learners (LPL), NS-high-proficiency learners (HPL), and HPL–LPL? The study is grounded in the Interaction Hypothesis, which argues that comprehensible input, opportunities for modified output, and noticing are essential for interactions to facilitate SLA through negotiation episodes. The participants included four NSs, four LPLs, and four HPLs. The participants were paired up to form two of each of the following dyadic types: NS–LPL, NS–HPL, and HPL–LPL. All dyads performed one task in each mode. The learners took a tailor-made posttest, designed to measure their L2 development. The data collection included transcribed FTF interactions, SCMC chats, and posttest scores. The interactions were coded for negotiation episodes and strategies. The posttest responses were coded as correct, partially correct, or incorrect. Chi-square test of independence was used to analyse the quantitative data because of their categorical nature and small sample size. Results found no statistically significant difference in the frequency of negotiation episodes among the three dyadic types or the LPLs’ and HPLs’ language learning outcome in FTF versus SCMC. Pedagogical implications are discussed.

Second language acquisition (SLA) has been one of the central topics in cognitive science. Various theories regarding the SLA process have evolved and have been a subject of debate over the years. With a critical review of the competing theories of cognition and language development, this paper examines the differences between L1 and L2 acquisitional processes and then proposes a model of SLA process from a cognitive information-processing perspective. The pedagogic implications of this model are also discussed.

Teacher language proficiency and confidence influences students’ classroom experiences. With the view to supporting French as a second language teacher candidates’ language development, 15 teacher candidates participated in a home-stay practicum experience within a French milieu. This study sought to explore teacher candidates’ self-concept of proficiency and their confidence pre and post-experience. Both qualitative and quantitative findings show an increase in perceived proficiency and confidence.

The effects of child care services on several domains of child development have been extensively investigated, but evidence regarding the effects of child care on language development remains inconclusive. Within a large-scale population-based study, we examined the longitudinal associations between non-parental child care and language development from 1 to 6 years (n = 5375). Results showed that more hours in non-parental child care were associated with better language abilities. However, more hours in care in the first year of life were associated with less language proficiency at ages 1 to 1.5. At later ages, this effect disappeared and language proficiency increased. Furthermore, children who spent more hours in centre-based care had better language scores than children in home-based care. Ethnicity, socio-economic status, gender or parity did not change these results. This large, multi-ethnic study demonstrates beneficial effects of non-parental child care, particularly centre-based care, on language proficiency later in childhood.

Due to growing interest in less common languages, Portuguese as an additional language has seen a rise in popularity, particularly in academic settings. Despite this, research on foreign graduate students learning Portuguese in Brazil remains scarce. This study investigates the cultural and identity (re)construction of one such student. Grounded in Vygotsky’s (1978) theory and informed by the Sociocultural Theory of Second Language Development (Lantolf, 2013) and investment theory developed by Bonny Norton (1995), which emphasize identity and motivation, we explore the experiences of a foreign graduate student at a southern Brazilian public university. Our analysis reveals a complex interplay between language development and cultural integration, ultimately suggesting the participant achieved his academic and professional goals - including successful completion of Portuguese courses - through language proficiency. By recollecting Abdul’s Muslim identity, it becomes clearer how social identities are constructed and reconstructed in and from social interactions. This highlights the limitations of simplistic views about learning - they are far more intricate than we often realize. The interplay between social interactions, power dynamics, and language development becomes clear: these elements are fundamentally linked.

ABSTRACTThis paper analyses fiction writers’ contribution to the development of Kiswahili language. The paper is anchored on the assumption that writers play a big role in the development of language. The contribution of fiction writers has not been widely investigated. This paper analyses the position that creative writers in Swahili literature have accorded this language in their works, and how this position contributes to the development of the language. Additionally, there is a discussion on how writers affect readers’ appreciation of the importance of the Swahili language. This study was guided by social influence theory that holds that popular and distinguished people have a lot of influence that can shape others in society. Writers have this characteristic and so they can shape the outlook and views of their readers on the importance of the Swahili language. The data used in this paper was collected by reading the fictional works of three writers of Swahili literature who were purposively sampled: Shaaban Robert, Wallah bin Wallah, and Ken Walibora, together with questionnaires sent to 40 students and 8 lecturers at Rongo University. Similarly, these authors’ works were purposively sampled. Findings of this study show that these writers have given Kiswahili a special position in society and have used admirable characters who love and defend the language, thus influencing the readers to also love Swahili.

Contents: Part I:Critical Theoretical Issues. M. Studdert-Kennedy, Language Development from an Evolutionary Perspective. E. Bates, D. Thal, V. Marchman, Symbols and Syntax: A Darwinian Approach to Language Development. M.P. Maratsos, How the Acquisition of Nouns May Be Different from That of Verbs. K. Nelson, Concepts and Meaning in Language Development. L. Bloom, Representation and Expression. Part II:Precursors of Language in Primates. D.M. Rumbaugh, W.D. Hopkins, D.A. Washburn, E.S. Savage-Rumbaugh, Comparative Perspectives of Brain, Cognition, and Language. P.F. MacNeilage, The Postural Origins Theory of Primate Neurobiological Asymmetries. D.L. Molfese, P.A. Morse, Developmental Changes in Nonhuman Primate Patterns of Brain Lateralization for the Perception of Speech Cues: Neuroelectrical Correlates. E.S. Savage-Rumbaugh, Language Learning in the Bonobo: How and Why They Learn. P.M. Greenfield, E.S. Savage-Rumbaugh, Imitation, Grammatical Development, and the Invention of Protogrammar by an Ape. Part III:Language Acquisition in Children. A.C. Catania, The Phylogeny and Ontogeny of Language Function. A. Lock, The Role of Social Interaction in Early Language Development. K. Hirsh-Pasek, R.M. Golinkoff, Language Comprehension: A New Look at Some Old Themes. S. Crain, R. Thornton, Recharting the Course of Language Acquisition: Studies in Elicited Production. E. Thelen, Motor Aspects of Emergent Speech: A Dynamic Approach. U. Bellugi, A. Bihrle, D. Corina, Linguistic and Spatial Development: Dissociations Between Cognitive Domains. Part IV:Acquisition by Instruction in the Language Delayed. K.E. Nelson, On Differentiated Language-Learning Models and Differentiated Interventions. M.A. Romski, R.A. Sevcik, Patterns of Language Learning by Instruction: Evidence from Nonspeaking Persons with Mental Retardation. M.L. Rice, Children with Specific Language Impairment: Toward a Model of Teachability. J.E. McLean, L. Snyder-McLean, Communicative Intent and Its Realizations Among Persons with Severe Intellectual Deficits.

To examine the relationship between cumulative biological and environmental risk factors and the language development of children less than 3 years. A sample of 253 children aged 2 to 35 months, from an urban centre in north India were evaluated for language development. The main outcome measure was the language quotient (LQ) of the child as evaluated by the Clinical Linguistic Auditory Milestone Scale (CLAMS). Twelve possible risk factors, 4 biological and 8 environmental, were selected. Biological risk factors included preterm birth, low birth weight, history of birth asphyxia, and history of neonatal jaundice. The environmental risk factors included low income, large family size, minimal father's and mother's education, disadvantaged caste, low level of occupation of head of the household, absence of father, and higher birth order. A multiple risk score was created and categorized into 3 groups: low risk (0 to 1), moderate risk (2 to 3) and high risk (4 and above). There was a significant (F=4.80, p<.000) general downward linear trend in the LQ of the child as the number of risk factors increased. The difference in the LQ of the children with no risk factor and those with 8 risk factors was 21.21 LQ points and each risk factor reduced the LQ of the children by 2.63 points. Children experience many risk factors but the most detrimental effects on language development are caused when multiple biological and environmental risk factors act on a single child.

The quick ascendance of the World Wide Web as the dominant vehicle for internet communication has recently made experimentation in a multimedia environment feasible on the Internet. Although web sites containing online psychology demonstrations and experiments for non-handicapped individuals have appeared in recent years (especially in the areas of cognitive and social psychology), there appear to have been few attempts to conduct online experimentation with special populations. We recently completed two online pilot studies of families with Down syndrome or Williams syndrome members: a) A survey that asks (via Likert rating scales, adjective checklists, multiple-choice style questions, and text-entry boxes) about family background, computer use, and temperament of the special needs family member; and b) An experiment (completed by an individual with special needs) that includes auditory and visual digit span tasks and a memory-for-orientation task in which responses are entered via mouse clicks. Recruiting began with e-mail announcements to representative Down syndrome and Williams syndrome discussion groups, listserves, and bulletin boards, and submission of the project's URL (http://www.cofc.edu/~marcellm/testaw.htm) and key indexing terms to selected search engines. This paper reviews technical aspects of developing the online programmes as well as the strengths and weaknesses of online vs. traditional laboratory-based research in relation to issues such as experimental control, delivery of instructions, experimenter bias, participant recruitment, sample heterogeneity, generalization, attrition, privacy, financial costs, data integrity, and ethics. We conclude by offering our thoughts on two ways of implementing online experimentation with special populations: a) Using a remote parent 'helper' as a proxy to work with the target individual; and b) Collaborating with professional colleagues in Web-based projects conducted in traditional laboratory settings.

Long COVID, where symptoms persist after recovering from COVID-19, can affect cognitive functions like language. However, little is known about its impact on children's language skills, especially across different school levels. This study investigated the impact of long COVID on language proficiency among 1244 children (Asian; 53.5% boys) from kindergartens (N = 408, Mage = 4.42 ± 1.26 years), primary schools (N = 547, Mage = 9.69 ± 1.96 years), and secondary schools (N = 289, Mage = 14.97 ± 1.85 years) in Hong Kong. Language proficiency was assessed using the Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q), which measured speaking, listening, reading, and writing in both Chinese and English. Participants were categorized into three groups: long COVID, recovered from COVID-19, and no history of COVID-19. One-way and two-way ANOVAs were used to analyze the differences in language proficiency across these groups and school levels. Children with long COVID symptoms exhibited significantly lower overall language proficiency, particularly in speaking and listening, compared to those in the recovered and no-COVID groups. The effect was more pronounced among primary and secondary students, with secondary school students showing the most substantial deficits. No significant differences were found between the recovered and no-COVID groups. The results suggest that long COVID might have detrimental effects on children's linguistic proficiency. The language development of older students who suffered from long COVID could benefit from receiving targeted educational and therapeutic interventions.

This article substantiates the relevance of multilingual education in alignment with Kyrgyzstan’s national development strategies, which emphasize preparing citizens proficient in multiple languages. The study examines the potential of the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) methodology as an effective approach to achieving these national objectives. The main purpose of this research is to explore the theoretical foundations and practical benefits of CLIL in a multilingual educational environment and to develop recommendations for training future teachers. An action research design was implemented in three cycles, each comprising planning, action, observation, and reflection stages. The participants were students from Jalal-Abad State University, and their language development was monitored throughout the study. The findings demonstrated a notable improvement in Russian language proficiency following the implementation of CLIL and extracurricular language activities: the proportion of students achieving level B1 increased by 14%, and level A1 by 19%. The third measurement confirmed that 38.4% of students reached level A2 and 50% level A1. Overall, the CLIL methodology proved to be a promising and practical tool for improving linguistic, cognitive, and professional competencies, supporting the preparation of competitive specialists for multilingual and international educational contexts

In the fast-paced era of globalization, it is essential for students to acquire cross-cultural communication skills to adapt to the diverse and dynamic international environment. Therefore, the integration of cultural content in English teaching plays a crucial role in enhancing students’ cross-cultural understanding and competence. This paper will discuss the positive effects of cultural content integration on students’ language proficiency, cultural awareness, and intercultural communication skills. Furthermore, the paper will introduce several effective strategies for integrating cultural content in English teaching, including the use of multimedia resources, interdisciplinary collaboration, and cross-cultural exchange activities. These strategies can help teachers to create a more engaging and meaningful learning environment for students, promoting their overall language development and cultural competence.

&lt;p&gt;The present paper reports on a quantitative study that explored Moroccan EFL high school students’ attitudes and perceptions of explicit vocabulary instruction of formulaic language (FcL). A survey with 12 closed-ended items was sent to 51 students via Google Forms. The aim of the survey was to elicit the students’ perceptions of explicit instruction, vocabulary retention, language proficiency, motivation, and engagement. The overall findings revealed that the participants have positive perceptions of explicit instruction and explained that the treatment increased their vocabulary repertoire and language proficiency. This study offers comprehensive results of EFL learners’ perceptions of the explicit instruction of FcL and its effects on their language development, motivation, and engagement. These findings can yield important insights for better and more effective teaching practices in EFL contexts. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;تتناول هذه الورقة دراسة كمية استكشفت مواقف وتصورات طلاب المدارس الثانوية المغربية من دارسي اللغة الإنجليزية كلغة أجنبية تجاه التدريس الصريح للمفردات الاصطلاحية. تم إرسال استبيان يحتوي على 12 سؤال مغلق إلى 51 طالبًا عبر برنامج جوجل فورم. كان الهدف من هذا الاستبيان هو استقصاء تصورات الطلاب بشأن التدريس الصريح، وتثبيت المفردات، والكفاءة اللغوية، والتحفيز، والمشاركة. أظهرت النتائج العامة أن المشاركين لديهم تصورات إيجابية حول التدريس الصريح، وأفادوا بأن هذا النهج ساعدهم على توسيع مفرداتهم وتحسين كفاءتهم اللغوية. تقدم هذه الدراسة نتائج شاملة حول تصورات متعلمي اللغة الإنجليزية كلغة أجنبية بشأن التدريس الصريح للعبارات الاصطلاحية وتأثيره على تطورهم اللغوي، وتحفيزهم، ومشاركتهم. ويمكن أن تسهم هذه النتائج في تقديم رؤى قيّمة نحو ممارسات تدريسية أكثر فاعلية في سياقات تعليم اللغة الإنجليزية كلغة أجنبية.&lt;/p&gt;

BackgroundThe early language environment is important for language development and a child’s life-course trajectory. Risk factors associated with poor language development outcomes in children include maternal anxiety and depression, low educational attainment, substance misuse, and low socioeconomic status. Language Environment Analysis (LENA) is a wearable technology designed to promote caregivers’ engagement in supporting their children’s language development. LENA provides quantitative linguistic feedback, which has been shown to improve caregiver language output, thus enhancing a child’s language environment. There is limited research on the uptake of this technology by families with developmentally at-risk children.ObjectiveThis qualitative study aims to explore the conditions under which mothers with children at risk of poor developmental outcomes are willing to adopt the use of LENA to monitor and improve caregiver language output.MethodsUsing a qualitative interpretive design, semistructured, in-depth interviews were conducted with 8 mothers. Participants were recruited purposively to select the maximal variation of socioeconomic and ethnodemographic backgrounds. The transcribed interview data were analyzed thematically and interpretatively. Themes were mapped abductively to an extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, which included contextual factors for LENA acceptance.ResultsFactors that influenced the intention to use LENA included both technology-specific acceptance factors and contextual factors. Technology acceptance themes included reassurance, feeling overwhelmed, and trust. These themes were mapped to performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence. Contextual themes included emergent success and the intrusion of past difficulties. These were mapped to parenting self-efficacy and perceived risk. The theme of building on success described behavioral intention. Mothers were more likely to adopt LENA when the technology was viewed as acceptable, and this was influenced by parenting self-efficacy and perceived risk.ConclusionsLENA is a technology that is acceptable to mothers with children who are at risk of poor language development outcomes. Further studies are needed to establish LENA’s effectiveness as an adjunct to strategies to enrich a child’s early language environment.

Social Bases of Language Development: A Reassessment