Engendering Climate Change

Global warming and anthropogenic activities have imposed noticeable impacts on rainfall pattern changes at both spatial and temporal scales in recent decades. Systematic diagnosis of rainfall pattern changes is urgently needed at spatiotemporal scales for a deeper understanding of how climate change produces variations in rainfall patterns. The objective of this study was to identify rainfall pattern changes systematically under climate change at a subcontinental scale along a rainfall gradient ranging from 1800 to 200 mm yr−1 by analyzing centennial rainfall data covering 230 sites from 1910 to 2017 in the Northern Territory of Australia. Rainfall pattern changes were characterized by considering aspects of trends and periodicity of annual rainfall, abrupt changes, rainfall distribution, and extreme rainfall events. Our results illustrated that rainfall patterns in northern Australia have changed significantly compared with the early period of the twentieth century. Specifically, 1) a significant increasing trend in annual precipitation associated with greater variation in recent decades was observed over the entire study area, 2) temporal variations represented a mean rainfall periodicity of 27 years over wet to dry regions, 3) an abrupt change of annual rainfall amount occurred consistently in both humid and arid regions during the 1966–75 period, and 4) partitioned long-term time series of rainfall demonstrated a wetter rainfall distribution trend across coastal to inland areas that was associated with more frequent extreme rainfall events in recent decades. The findings of this study could facilitate further studies on the mechanisms of climate change that influence rainfall pattern changes. Significance Statement Characterizing long-term rainfall pattern changes under different rainfall conditions is important to understand the impacts of climate change. We conducted diagnosis of centennial rainfall pattern changes across wet to dry regions in northern Australia and found that rainfall patterns have noticeably changed in recent decades. The entire region has a consistent increasing trend of annual rainfall with higher variation. Meanwhile, the main shifting period of rainfall pattern was during 1966–75. Although annual rainfall seems to become wetter with an increasing trend, more frequent extreme rainfall events should also be noticed for assessing the impacts of climate changes. The findings support further study to understand long-term rainfall pattern changes under climate change.

As back as the Industrial Revolution, anthropogenic activities namely, power generation from fossil fuels and deforestation activities have been continuously increasing the atmospheric concentration of GHGs beyond their natural limits resulting in an enhanced greenhouse effect, vis-à-vis, an increase in global temperature. The rise in temperature could be coupled with changes in rainfall pattern, rise in sea level, and frequency and severity of extreme events namely, cyclones and droughts etc. The sum of all these changes is referred to as climate change. Climate change affects economic development in many ways, especially the agrarian economies have always depended on vagaries of nature and climate. Change in temperature, precipitation averages and extreme climate events can alter yield, income, health, sociology and physical safety. Climate change is a global phenomenon and no country is immune to it. The disappearing of the Himalayan glaciers at a fast pace would increase the probability of extreme water flows, rendering it uncontrolled will bring heavy floods, loss of life, livestock, crops and infrastructural facilities in Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh. Climate change will affect all sectors of the economy not alone agricultural sector the most as well as health, forests, energy, coastal area, biodiversity and ecology all over the globe. In this connection, it will be pertinent to give the most recent events which have taken place across Asia.

Changes in rainfall patterns continue to affect pastoralism as practiced by the Maasai community in Kajiado County. The Maasai community is vulnerable to effects of the changing rainfall pat terns induced by climate variability. The community has tried to cope with these changes by altering livestock feeding practices but knowledge gaps exist as to whether these characteristic responses adequately respond to the problem posed by changing rainf all patterns. Thus, this study established how changes in rainfall patterns influence livestock feeding practices of the Maasai community in Kajiado County. A sample size of 136 household heads was used for the study. Results indicated that most of the res pondents had noticed changes in rainfall patterns ( 99%), 58.09 % reported that

Aims: This research investigates the temporal distribution of rainfall in Thanjavur district, aiming to enhance our understanding of climatic patterns prevailing in Thanjavur district. The study investigates the return period, probability of occurrence and the seasonal changes in rainfall for five decades. Employing a comprehensive analysis of historical meteorological data, the study seeks to identify trends, anomalies, and potential shifts in rainfall patterns. Study Design: Geostatistical techniques are adopted for studying trend analysis in rainfall pattern using Annual and monthly rainfall data for 51 years from 1972 to 2022. Place and Duration of Study: The study area, Thanjavur district is predominantly an agricultural region which lies in the Eastern part of Cauvery delta and it is called the Rice Bowl of Tamil Nadu. This study takes a period of data for 51 years from 1972 to 2022. Methodology: The return period and probability of occurrence are calculated using MS Excel. Linear regression model is adopted to predict the variations in rainfall depending on changing years. The trend analysis in rainfall for the years 1972 to 2022 using Mann – Kendall Test and Sen's Slope Estimator Test are performed using XLSTAT. Results: The maximum rainfall received in the study area is 2141.760 mm and a minimum of 494.600 mm. The mean rainfall is 1144.131 and the calculated value of standard deviation reveals that deviation of rainfall is 342.168 mm over a period of 51 years. Large value of Standard deviation indicates that there is larger variation in rainfall pattern in the study area. Regarding the regression analysis, out of 51 observation years nearly 15 years (1974, 1977, 1980, 1982, 1993, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2021) have outlying residual values. The remaining years follow good fit. From the values of Kendall's Tau, it is assumed that in the 51 years of period in the months of January, May and August there is stronger positive trend. In which, January exhibits the higher value, showing a high increasing trend in rainfall. Conclusion: Changing rainfall patterns are not just a climate concern, but are deeply interlinked with national development goals. Accurate rainfall monitoring and interpretation can help in designing the climate resilient policies, secure sustainable water use, and protect lives and livelihoods through planning. Regarding the rainfall pattern in the study area, the January, April, May, June, August and November are showing an increasing trend in which January, May and August months are showing higher values of increase. Although the study area receives its maximum rainfall in the NE monsoon season (Oct – Dec), September, October and December months are showing a decreasing trend. Only November month shows a slight increase trend. As the study area stays on agrarian economy and the agriculture pattern mostly depend on NE monsoon. The decrease trend in rainfall pattern indirectly affects the economy and further developments.

The role of the chief scientist (CS), a key administrative position in various Israeli ministries, is to fund policy‐oriented research and support evidence‐based decision‐making. Has the CS's role promoted or constrained incorporation of scientific advice regarding climate change adaptation into governmental policy? Have administrative traditions affected the adaptation planning process in Israel? Analysis of documents and 26 in‐depth interviews with key stakeholders sheds light on the ongoing climate change adaptation policy formulation process. Our study reveals that the CS of the Ministry of Environmental Protection functions as a bridge at different interfaces and can be characterized as a boundary worker between institutions. The inherent independence of this position facilitates the CS's ability to initiate, foster, and prioritize complex issues such as adaptation. Our findings further suggest that the perception that Israel has already adapted, or will easily adapt, has negatively affected the adaptation process. 科学建议和行政传统：首席科学家在气候变化适应工作中的作用 首席科学家是以色列各部门的一个关键行政职务, 其具体作用是为政策性研究提供资金, 并支持循证决策。对于有关气候变化适应的科学建议, 首席科学家的作用是促进还是限制了其被纳入到政府政策中？行政传统是否影响了以色列的气候适应规划进程？通过文件分析及与关键利益相关者的26次深入访谈, 笔者揭示了正在进行的适应气候变化政策的制定过程。研究表明, 环保部门的首席科学家在不同的层面上起着桥梁作用, 在不同机构的分界线上工作以彼此连接。该职位的内在独立性能促进首席科学家在发起问题、培养和优先考虑包括适应气候等复杂问题的能力。研究进一步表明, 以色列已经适应了或即将轻易适应某些观点, 而这已经对气候适应过程产生了负面影响。 Asesoria cientifica y tradiciones administrativas: el papel que juegan los cientificos principales en la adaptacion al cambio climatico El papel que juegan los cientificos principales, un puesto administrativo clave en varios ministerios israelies, esta especificamente designado para el financiamiento de investigacion orientada hacia la politica y el apoyo a decisiones basadas en evidencia. ?El papel que juegan los cientificos principales ha promovido o limitado la incorporacion de asesoria cientifica en lo que concierne a la adaptacion al cambio climatico dentro de las politicas del gobierno? ?Las tradiciones administrativas han afectado el proceso de planeacion para la adaptacion en Israel? El analisis de los documentos en 26 entrevistas exhaustivas con partes afectadas clave ilustra el proceso de formulacion de las politicas de adaptacion al cambio climatico actual. Nuestro estudio revela que el Cientifico Principal del Ministerio de Proteccion Ambiental funciona como un puente para diferentes interfaces y puede ser caracterizado como un trabajador limitrofe entre las instituciones. La independencia inherente de esta posicion facilita la habilidad del cientifico principal para iniciar, fomentar y darle prioridad a complejos problemas como la adaptacion. Nuestros hallazgos sugieren que la percepcion de Israel ya se ha adaptado, o se adaptara facilmente, y ha afectado negativamente el proceso de adaptacion.

Diarrheal diseases remain a significant contributor to the global burden of disease. Climate change may increase their incidence by altering the epidemiology of waterborne pathogens through changes in rainfall patterns. To assess potential impacts of future changes in rainfall patterns, we analyzed 33,927 cases of diarrhea across all Ministry of Health clinical facilities in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador, for a 24-month period from 2013 to 2014, using mixed-effects Poisson regression. We assessed the association between the incidence of diarrheal diseases and heavy rainfall events (HREs) and antecedent rainfall conditions. In rural areas, we found no significant associations between HREs and incidence. In urban areas, dry antecedent conditions were associated with higher incidence than wet conditions. In addition, HREs with dry antecedent conditions were associated with elevated incidence by up to 1.35 (incidence rate ratio, 95% CI: 1.14-1.60) times compared with similar conditions without HREs. These patterns may be driven by accumulation of fecal contamination during dry periods, followed by a flushing effect during HREs. This phenomenon is more important in dense urban environments with more impervious surfaces. These findings suggest that projected increases in rainfall variability and HREs may increase diarrhea burden in urban regions, which are rapidly expanding globally.

Food security issues have become important as prices of staple grains have soared in the last few years. Climate change is expected to increase pressure on food supply/quality/sustainability worldwide. Changes in rainfall patterns, drought, temperature and CO 2 all impact on staple food production systems. It has been suggested that there will be “hotspots” in different regions of the world where the temperature may increase by +2–4 °C, where rainfall patterns and drought events may increase, resulting in more rapid desertification and significantly impacting on staple food crop yields. Thus, for staple cereals a doubling of CO 2 (350 to 700 μl/l) and an increase in temperature will have a penalty on yield and nutritional quality, while for rice this could increase crop biomass, although effects on yield and quality are less clear. Plant stress inevitably leads to increased susceptibility to fungal infection, pre- and post-harvest, and potential for increased contamination by mycotoxins (Magan et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2011). We have previously demonstrated that mycotoxigenic fungal activity can lead to small changes in dry matter losses in climate change type conditions, which would still exceed the legislative limits, certainly in Europe. It is thus important to consider the potential for increased contamination of cereals by Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxins and Fusarium verticillioides and fumonisins in maize; Fusarium species and trichothecenes A and B, such as T-2 and HT-2 toxins, zearelenone and deoxynivalenol in small grain cereals. We have harnessed our published ecological data on the marginal conditions for growth and mycotoxin production in relation to temperature and water availability for a range of Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium species and tried to integrate this with other types of data including mould growth and molecular data to develop models which could be used to predict mycotoxin contamination and the relative risk in cereals under different climate change scenarios. Based on climate change scenarios there are expected to be hot spots of increased temperature and flooding in northern parts of India with southern parts being subjected to increased drought episodes with increased temperatures and irrigation becoming essential. This could have profound impacts on cereal production, yield and grain quality in northern parts of India. This could impact on food security and availability in some parts of the Indian sub-continent.

Rice production is susceptible to damage from the changes in temperature and rainfall patterns, and in the frequency of major storm events that will accompany climate change. Deltaic areas, in which millions of farmers cultivate from one to three crops of rice per year, are susceptible also to the impacts of a rising sea level, submergence during major storm events, and saline intrusion into groundwater and surface water resources. In this paper, I review the current state of knowledge regarding the potential impacts of climate change on rice production and I describe adaptation measures that involve soil and water management. In many areas, farmers will need to modify crop choices, crop calendars, and soil and water management practices as they adapt to climate change. Adaptation measures at the local, regional, and international levels also will be helpful in moderating the potential impacts of climate change on aggregate rice production and on household food security in many countries. Some of the changes in soil and water management and other production practices that will be implemented in response to climate change also will reduce methane generation and release from rice fields. Some of the measures also will reduce the uptake of arsenic in rice plants, thus addressing an important public health issue in portions of South and Southeast Asia. Where feasible, replacing continuously flooded rice production with some form of aerobic rice production, will contribute to achieving adaptation objectives, while also reducing global warming potential and minimizing the risk of negative health impacts due to consumption of arsenic contaminated rice.

Italy is located in an area which is particularly vulnerable to climate change. Indeed, in this regard the Mediterranean is considered to be a hotspot and as a result Italy, together with other Southern European countries, will be very heavily impacted. Here climate change is associated with rising temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns and prolonged periods of drought. Moreover, an increase in the frequency of extreme weather events is 9% more likely than it was 20 years ago, according to the Euro-Mediterranean Centre on Climate Change. All sectors of the economy are negatively impacted, with a particularly worrying trend being seen in agriculture. Changes are presenting risks for the availability of water resources and hence revealing the inadequacy of current infrastructures and adaptation strategies. The costs associated with climate change impacts increase exponentially as temperatures rise in different scenarios, with some forecasts indicating a loss of up to 8.5% by 2050 of gross domestic product. Climate change also interacts with socioeconomic and land use changes, as well as widening the economic gap between regions. Mitigating and adapting to climate change is thus an existential priority for Italy. The country is already suffering and will increasingly suffer high climate costs, for example in the agricultural sector, but despite this there is still a shortage of climate insurance.

<p>Surface water flooding is the most likely cause of flooding in London, still affecting at least 3% of the area and up to 680,000 properties. Urbanization and climate change are expected to increase the impacts of urban flooding in the near future. To mitigate such problem and provide resilient ecosystem services for Europe’s largest capital, Urban Green Infrastructure adaptations have been extensively used in the last two decades in conjunction with traditional grey infrastructure. Sustainability and efficiency of green infrastructure depend on the ability of plants to emulate the natural ecosystem water and carbon cycles in the city. Considering the expected rise in temperature, changes in rainfall patterns and intensification of the urban heat island effect, existing and planned green infrastructure solutions might be vulnerable to plant water stress. Since there will be much less space available to accommodate future changes in cities, it is extremely important to think about the system’s potential performance further ahead the construction. In this study we perform a detailed evaluation of representative London parks and rain gardens to mitigate flood risk under a changing climate. Specifically, we focus on the hydrological performance of urban raingardens (consisting exclusively of low stature plants) and urban parks (as a composite of low stature vegetation and urban forests) in London. The coupled water and carbon dynamics were evaluated using the ecohydrological model Tethys-Chloris (TeC) forced with the last generation climate change projections UKCP18. Based on our simulation we disentangle the composite effects of climate change, to plant physiological responses to elevated CO2 and changes in precipitation patterns and temperature.</p><p>Our results indicate that:</p><p>(a) Changes in weather severely affect plant efficiency during the 2<sup>nd</sup> half of the 21<sup>st</sup> century;</p><p>(b) Effectiveness of green infrastructure is strongly dependent on possible climate change outcomes;</p><p>(c) Within a certain range of plausible climate changes, for the 1<sup>st</sup> half of the 21<sup>st</sup> century positive effects of changes in climate can mostly counteract negative plant physiological responses to elevated CO2, but those negative effects gradually become dominant;</p><p>(d) Efficient and sustainable design of urban green infrastructure to mitigate flooding must consider an optimal adaptive choice of plants to offset the projected negative impacts of elevated CO2 and uncertain climate.</p>

Climate change is a burning issue which had affected different sectors of the environment. It is observed in Nepal in the form of increased frequency of natural disasters, rise in temperature and change in rainfall patterns, shifting of tree line and unfavorable weather change phenomena. It had affected agriculture, hydropower, tourism and livelihood of people in Nepal. Tourism is a travel to a place for the purpose of business, vacation and other activities. It generates enterprise and employment, increases income and helps in sustaining livelihood of local people. There is a close relationship between climate and tourism in ecosystem tourism, coastal tourism, mountain tourism and nature-based tourism. Climate change brings more risks than opportunities by causing regional and seasonal shifts in tourist flows. This paper is based on the review of researches on climate change and tourism. Climate change had caused shift in destination choice of tourists. It had reduced barrier of winter tourism in Nepal in short term. But, unfavorable weather change phenomena had taken lives of many tourists in Nepal and had caused discomfort in transportation in mountain regions. It would decrease the flow of tourists in long term and decrease the income from tourism. It will further cause adverse impact on livelihood of tourism dependent people. To minimize the adverse impact of climate change on tourism, appropriate preventive measures, rescue measures and early warning systems should be implemented in mountain tourism in Nepal. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality EducationVol. 7, 2017, page: 25-43

This study was set up to examine climate change and adaptation strategies of arable crop farmers in Abia State. The study adopted the cross-sectional research design with a sample population of 392 farmers across the seventeen Local Government Areas of Abia State. Chi Square statistics was used to test the study hypothesis. The study revealed that Climate change impact on arable crops is affecting farmer’s economy in Abia State. Evidences of climate change in the area, could be seen in the form of increase in temperature, change in rainfall pattern and intensity which has brought about a change in planting seasons, the study further revealed that The techniques/strategies adopted by arable crop famers in Abia State include cultivation of early maturing breeds of arable crop, crop diversification, changes in time of farm operation, change of farm location, rain water harvesting, diversification of income-generating activities and planting of drought-resistant varieties. The most predominant adaptation strategies practiced by arable crop farmers in Abia State are cultivation of early maturing breeds of arable crops, crop diversification and changes in time of farm operation and that there was seasonal variation in the choice of adaptation strategy adopted by farmers. The study however recommends that climate change impacts on arable crops as such agricultural activities that enhance climate change such as bush burning, total forest clearing should be discouraged. There is a need to adopt agro based environmental friendly techniques in crop production such as alley farming and that farmers should be encouraged to adopt the identified effective adaptation technique that are practicable for their location.

Objective: This study aims to investigate the value chain of C. coriaceum and the climate-related challenges faced by gatherers in Northeastern Brazil, in order to understand how climate change affects both production and socio-economic relations along the chain. Theoretical Framework: The research is grounded in the concepts of non-timber forest product value chains, socio-environmental sustainability, and the impacts of climate change on the phenology of Neotropical species, highlighting the relevance of local perceptions as a complement to scientific evidence on water and heat stress in plants. Method: A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining qualitative and quantitative data through semi-structured interviews with 17 sellers/gatherers. To map and analyze the C. coriaceum value chain, the Value Links 2.0 approach was used to structure supply, processing, and distribution levels. Gatherers’ perceptions of climate impacts were analyzed through narratives and storytelling, allowing an understanding of how experiences, emotions, and socio-ecological relationships shape management practices and adaptive responses to climate change. Results and Discussion: The results indicate that the C. coriaceum value chain is highly seasonal and dependent on external suppliers before the local harvest (December–February). Informal relationships between gatherers and traders characterize the harvest period, with an average profit margin of 57.13%. Gatherers reported negative impacts of climate change on fruit size and taste, attributed to changes in rainfall patterns, elevated temperatures, and frequent wildfires. These perceptions align with scientific evidence on water and heat stress affecting the species’ phenology. Research Implications: Findings highlight both socio-economic and environmental challenges in the C. coriaceum value chain, emphasizing the need for organizational strengthening and adoption of sustainable practices to enhance local community resilience. Originality/Value: The study integrates local knowledge and scientific evidence on climate change impacts, providing insights for public policy and sustainable management strategies for native species.

Rainfed agriculture covers 80 percent of the World’s cropland and produces about 60 percent of the World’s food grains. In India, 55 percent of gross sown area accounts 40 percent of food production. In Tamil Nadu, nearly 48 per cent of gross sown area is under rainfed cultivation which is highly vulnerable to climate change and therefore it requires appropriate climate adaptation strategies. The present study covering 180 sample households to examine the farmers perception on climate change and various adaptation responses practiced in rainfed agriculture in Tamil Nadu, Southern India. The farmers were requested to choose one or more response among the three options namely, change in rainfall pattern, change in temperature and decrease in ground water availability. The results of the analysis indicated that rainfall and ground water availability are major concerns due to climate change were perceive by 84 and 58 percent of farmers. The adaptation responses to climate change are examined and the farmers were requested to indicate the various adaptation strategies viz., changing the cropping pattern, drilling new bore wells, deepening existing wells, introducing water saving irrigation methods and reducing the number of irrigations etc. The change in rainfall and temperature perceived by farmers were followed the reduction in number of irrigations, change in cropping pattern, advancement or delaying of cropping seasons and growing rain-fed crops are the major adaptation strategies to reduce the impact of climate change.

Observed climate changes in Pacific island countries (PICs) are causing detrimental effects on the health of communities. Increased frequency and intensity of cyclones, more extremely hot days, and changes in rainfall patterns can change the geographic distribution of vector-borne diseases, decrease food and water security and safety, and strain health service capacity. These impacts are projected to worsen with additional climate change in the absence of strong and effective mitigation and adaptation measures. Health vulnerability and adaptation assessments conducted in twelve PICs in 2014 highlighted significant knowledge gaps on the national health risks of climate change and on adaptation implementation and policy translation. We synthesize recent research to identify approaches to support evidence-based policymaking to increase resilience of health systems in the Pacific. Broad areas where further and substantial investment and support are needed include: (i) health workforce capacity development; (ii) enhanced surveillance and monitoring systems, and (iii) research to enhance understanding of risks and effective interventions and their subsequent translation into practice and policy. Finally, health facilities need urgent upgrades; many are old and located in coastal areas, and are heavy users of coal-fired electricity.