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Coal mining remains an important industry in West Virginia and mining operations drastically disturb the forested landscape. After mining operations, reforesting the land provides economic and ecological benefits. In order to promote successful reforestation, the Appalachian Reforestation Initiative supports the Forestry Reclamation Approach (FRA). The FRA recommends creating a suitable rooting medium and ensuring that no compaction occurs. In 2005, three 2.5-ha research plots were established at the Catenary Mine in southern West Virginia. One plot was constructed with 1.2 m of brown sandstone, another with 1.5 m of brown sandstone, and the third with 1.5 m of gray sandstone. One half of each plot was compacted. Each year tree volume data and soils have been collected. Growth rates over eleven years were compared for all tree species combined, as well as for individual species: black locust, red oak, white ash, and white oak. When comparing the 1.2 m brown uncompacted plot to the compacted side, all tree species combined together, red oak, and white oak had higher growth rates at 0.62, 0.70, and 0.71 cm3/year, respectively. For the 1.5 m brown plot, growth rates were significantly higher in the compacted side for all trees combined and white oak, at 0.70 and 0.80 cm3/year, respectively. The 1.2 m brown compacted plot was compared the 1.5 m brown compacted plot and tree growth rates were higher in the 1.5 plot for all trees, red oak, white ash, and white oak at 0.70, 0.72, 0.70, and 0.80 cm3/year, respectively. Soil extractable nutrient data were found to vary widely across treatments and across all years. The pH of gray sandstone ranged from 6.5 to 8.3 on both plots over eleven years. The pH for the brown sandstone plots ranged from 4.6 to 6.6 over eleven years. Percent fines increased in all treatments in eleven years and increases ranged from 2% for the gray compacted plot to 19% in the 1.2 m brown compacted and uncompacted plots. Reclamation of mine sites can be successful when proper topsoil substitutes (such as brown sandstone) are used and left uncompacted.;Another study site was established at the Birch River Mine in Webster County, WV to assess the effects of mulch and hydroseeding treatments on the growth of twelve hardwood species on gray and brown sandstone. In 2006, a 2.5-ha plot was constructed with half 1.5 m of brown sandstone and half 1.5 m of gray sandstone. Bark mulch

Mine site rehabilitation generally aims to produce a safe, stable and non-polluting post-mining landscape that serves some agreed post-mining land use.Historically, the presumed post-mining land use has generally driven the rehabilitation process, often regardless of whether the adopted land use matches the pre-mining land use or is achievable.This dictates the flattening of the mine waste landform and the choice of surface cover applied.In the past, the adopted post-mining land use has often been grazing, which dictates that steep (usually angle of repose) mine waste slopes be flattened substantially, and that the surface be topsoiled and grassed.The tops of surface dumps and tailings surfaces often require reshaping to enhance surface drainage or water management prior to capping, topsoiling and grassing.The outer slopes of waste dumps and tailings storage facilities are generally flattened to allow access for equipment, topsoiling and grassing, possibly with the aim of allowing grazing.Even where grazing is not to be the post-mining land use, slope flattening, topsoiling, and grassing are often adopted.Whether or not grazing is the adopted post-mining land use, it may not be utilised, and a grass cover may be difficult to establish and even more difficult to sustain.Further, the limited extent to which steep mine waste slopes can be flattened generally results in slope angles that are still too steep for grazing use, and are prone to erosion, particularly if covered with topsoil and the grass cover is inadequate.This historical approach to mine site rehabilitation has led to repeated failures of flattened, topsoiled and grassed steep mine waste slopes and of regraded, capped, topsoiled and grassed dump tops and tailings.Increasingly, the establishment and sustainability of ecological functionality is seen as the key to achieving a safe, stable, and non-polluting post-mining landscape.Hence, it is argued that ecological function should be the preferred driver of mine site rehabilitation over the post-mining land use, since it better addresses the accepted rehabilitation aims.The paper presents a history of the conventional approach to mine site rehabilitation governed by slope flattening, topsoiling and grass covers, illustrated with global examples of mine site rehabilitation failures due to the adoption of those practices.These include examples from gold mining in Johannesburg, surface coal mining in Australia, and metalliferous mining in Australia, and focusses on the rehabilitation of steep mine slopes in tailings, spoil or waste rock.

This research assesses practices and legislation about post-mining land utilization in the United States. This paper examines insights from these practices and legislation within the Indonesian legal environment. This study employs a normative legal methodology within a comparative legal framework. The research indicates that the United States’s post-mining land use policies and practices are regulated by the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) and different federal regulations supporting public purposes such as airports, shopping centers, and industrial zones. Rigorous supervision is enforced on post-mining land prior to its designation as appropriate for use. Specialized land management methods are implemented when mining occurs on prime agricultural land. The efficacy of reclamation is significantly contingent upon the use of scientifically substantiated optimal management practices that emphasize ecological restoration and biodiversity enhancement. Longitudinal studies in the United States about ecological reclamation demonstrate that effective strategies, including surface soil replacement and customized planting schemes, markedly enhance the likelihood of successful revegetation of former mining sites. The United States offers a robust framework underpinned by comprehensive policies and efficient implementation that Indonesia can adopt. Future adoption of post-mining land use policies and practices in Indonesia should establish a harmonious equilibrium that fosters sustainable development, preserves environmental integrity, and promotes active community engagement.

A proposal for engaging a stakeholder panel in planning post-mining land uses in Australia’s coal-rich tropical savannahs

Forestry is becoming the preferred post-mining land use in the Appalachian region for the landowner as the value of forests becomes recognized. During the summer of 1996, a study was conducted in a white pine (Pinus strobus L.) plantation that was established in 1978 on a pre-SMCRA bench located in Wise County, Virginia. The objectives of this study were to illustrate the feasibility of commercial forestry as a post-mining land use, and to identify relationships between tree productivity and mine soil physical properties. The spoil was a deep, non-compacted, slightly-acid. weathered sandstone that had no topsoil applied. A timber inventory of the plantation showed that it was overstocked, therefore the plantation was thinned down to 20 m{sup 2} ha{sup -1} (90 ft{sup 2} of basal area per acre). The average tree height was 14.3 in (47 ft), translating to a very high site index of 35 in (110 ft; base age 50), compared to site indices of 24 in (80 ft) and 18.3 in (60 ft) for adjacent undisturbed forest soils and post-SMCRA reclaimed mine soils, respectively. When these site indices were used to project tree growth for 30 years, the estimated timber per-acre value was $3,480, $1,755, and $122more » for the non-compacted mine soil, undisturbed forest soil, and typical post-SMCRA mine soil, respectively. The twenty-fold difference in the timber value between the non-compacted none soil and the typical post-SMCRA mine soil represents a tremendous lost opportunity. for most post-SMCRA sites that are not reclaimed for commercial forestry. The high productivity of the white pine plantation growing on the pre-SMCRA bench was attributed to low soil bulk density and a moderately-acid sandstone mine soil. Reclamation practices that result in these desirable soil properties need to be encouraged, so that restored forest land will be profitable for the landowner, meet society`s needs, and meet the spirit and letter of the SMCRA.« less

The Forestry Reclamation Approach is a five-step system for reclaiming mined lands to forests. Step 1 of the FRA involves creating a suitable rooting medium for good tree growth using topsoil, weathered sandstone and/or the material. Several types of overburden types can be selected to place on the surface as growth media. These spoil types include weathered brown sandstone and unweathered rock materials including sandstones, siltstones, shales, and mixtures of these materials. When sufficient topsoil is not salvageable, reclamation scientists often recommend that, when available, weathered sandstone should be considered as the best available topsoil substitute material. Here, we review the scientific evidence that supports such recommendations. Several studies have shown that tree survival was not significantly different among spoil types. Weathered brown sandstone, unweathered gray sandstone, siltstone and shale materials all produced good tree survival (>70%) when compaction and competitive ground covers were reduced. However, growth for most trees (as measured by height, diameter, and volume) was usually significantly greater in weathered brown materials than in unweathered sandstones, siltstones, shales, and mixed spoils. At one site in West Virginia five years after planting, a 10-fold difference in tree volume was found between these two spoil types. Similar results have been found with other studies across Appalachian surface mines. Based on the results of studies summarized herein, the use of weathered brown sandstone is generally recommended, along with topsoil materials when available, to be placed on the surface on sites where hardwood tree species are being planted for forestry post-mining land uses. Weathered brown sandstone spoil materials have a pH, soluble salt content, fine earth content well suited for trees, and sufficient nutrient supplying and water holding capacity that results in superior tree growth compared to other spoil types. The brown sandstone material more closely resembles the native forest soil than the unweathered gray materials.

Ranching is a signficant land use in the Southern Interior of BC. In recent decades, acreages of both grassland and forest land have been disturbed by mining and, as reclamation proceeds, returned to forage production for the purpose of livestock use. Numerous issues surround the capability and suitability of waste rock and tailings sites for grazing. Despite a large amount of research being done on the revegetation of mined land, grazing as a post-mining land use has received limited study. Research is still needed to determine proper stocking rates, season and intensity of grazing for optimum livestock management systems. This paper presents the issues of site capability and suitability for livestock use, potential conflicts with other proposed end land uses and post-mining land management requirements.

This open-pit mining activity has a very helpful environmental potential, soil chemistry, erosion and sedimentation. Change in land use from mining actively after mining requires land and energy closure to ensure that the land is safe for and returned. In accordance with the local spatial pattern in Muara Enim, South Sumatra, the transfer of post-mining land after the dismissal of mining operations will be used as a conservation area managed by the mining community. The concept is an environmental addressing plan to determine the sustainability of various aspects of community life, including local sustainability, food environment, awareness, biodiversity, and sustainability. This study aims to ensure community sustainability after mining operations. The methodology that is an interview with Experts. The results of this research indicate that community empowerment in mining area can use one of the community's natural resource management strategies to ensure social sustainability with land use as agroforestry and integrated agricultural industries.

Post-mining land use for the production of industrial crops has the potential to mitigate environmental and socio-economic impacts of mine closure and stimulate post-mining economic growth. Fibre-rich plants are of particular interest due to their multi-product potential. In a South African context, where there are many abandoned and end-of-life mines near human settlements, there is an opportunity to assess the feasibility of transforming post-mining land into productive land and building resilient communities through the development of multi-product value chains from fibre-rich plants such as kenaf, hemp or bamboo. Biomass from fibre-rich plants, such as bamboo, kenaf and hemp, can be converted into various semi-fabricated and higher-end products (such as textiles, paper, furnishings, building materials, bio-plastics and bio-composites) as well as energy. The selection and development of viable processes and products for the downstream utilisation of plant biomass from post-mining land is complex and needs to be based on a comprehensive understanding of the options available, while considering the environmental, socio-economic and technical drivers, opportunities and constraints. This paper provides a review and assessment of the various processing routes for recovering value from fibre plant biomass, such as kenaf, hemp and bamboo, through the conversion into useful products, and potential integrated metal extraction, for the creation of post-mining industrial development. Based on findings from a comprehensive review of the published literature, as well as interviews with relevant experts within South Africa, it appears that bast fibre plants are the best downstream option for producing “green” textiles and high-end niche products, whereas bamboo is more suitable as a replacement for conventional timber. The desired products will, however, determine the fibre plant and plant-product processing options, and will be dependent on various local socio-economy and geography factors.

LONDONGeological Society, March 25.-John Evans, F. U.S., president, in the chair.-The following communications were read: -On the Upper Coal-Formation of Eastern Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, in its relation to the Permian, by Principal Dawson, F.R.S. The author described the Carboniferous district of Pictou county as showing the whole thickness of the Carboniferous system arranged in three synclinals, the easternmost consisting of the Lower series up to the Middle Coal-lor-mation, and including all the known workable Coal-measures in the district-the second towards the west of the middle and the lower part of the Upper Coal-formation-and the third showing in its centre the newest beds of the latter. On the north the bounding anticlinal of the first depression brings up the New-Glasgow Conglomerate, which contains boulders 3 ft. in diameter, often belonging to Lower Carboniferous rocks, and represents the upper part of the Millstone-grit or the lower part of the Middle Coal-formation. The author regards this as representing an immense bar or beach, which protected the swamps in which the Pictou main coal was formed. The succession of the deposits above the Conglomerate was described in some detail as seen in natural sections. The Upper Coal-formation, as shown in the section west of Carribou Harbour, consists of-(i) Red and grey shales, and grey, red, and brown sandstones; and (2) Shales, generally of a deep red colour, alternating with grey, red, and brown sandstones, the red beds becoming more prevalent in the upper part of the section. In Prince Edward Island beds apparently corresponding to these are found, and also gradually become more red in ascending. These are overlain, apparently conformably, by the Trias. The author gave a tabular list of 47 species of plants found in the Upper Coal-formation of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, and stated that all but about ten of these occur also in the Middle Coal-formation. The number of species decreases rapidly towards the upper part of the formation; and this is especially the case in Prince Edward Island, some of the beds in which are considered by the author to be newer than any of those in Nova Scotia. The plants contained in the upper deposits were compared with those of the European Permian, and a correlation was shown to exist between them, so that it becomes a question whether this series was not synchronous with the lower part of the Permian of Europe, although in this district there is no stratigraphical break to establish a boundary between Carboniferous and Permian. The author therefore proposes to name these beds Permo-Carboniferous, and regards them as to some extent bridging over the gap which in Eastern America separates- the Carboniferous from the Trias.-Note on the Carboniferous Conglomerates of the Eastern Part of the Basin of the Eden, by J. G. Goodchild.-An Account of a Well-Section in the Chalk at the north end of Driffield, East Yorkshire, by R. Mortimer.-On Slicken-sides; or Rock-Striations, particularly those of the Chalk, by Dr. Ogter Ward.

International audience

This paper provides an overview of planning requirements, including regulatory, and implementation approaches for achieving ecologically sound reclamation and restoration of mines upon closure in the USA. Mine closure includes mined-out areas, decommissioning of plants and structures, and appropriate monitoring of post-mining land, water, and air resources. Although the discussion provides general guidelines, each mine closure site presents unique challenges. The overall chemical composition of coal and associated strata with mineable coal seams, structural characteristics of the deposit, weather patterns, environmental conditions, processing and scale of mining of the deposit, and public and private infrastructure must be considered. Future land use and water resource requirements are also important considerations. The planning and closure activities must ensure that the resultant site has the appropriate post-mining land and water resources use, and the site does not pose any future environmental and health and safety risks. These requirements suggest that closure activities should be integrated with the mining activity planning process from the start. This paper discusses mine closure issues and describes several practices for a surface coal mine in the Western USA.

Since the implementation of the federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA) in May of 1978, many opportunities have been lost for the reforestation of surface mines in the eastern United States. Research has shown that excessive compaction of spoil material in the backfilling and grading process is the biggest impediment to the establishment of productive forests as a post-mining land use (Ashby, 1998, Burger et al., 1994, Graves et al., 2000). Stability of mine sites was a prominent concern among regulators and mine operators in the years immediately following the implementation of SMCRA. These concerns resulted in the highly compacted, flatly graded, and consequently unproductive spoils of the early post-SMCRA era. However, there is nothing in the regulations that requires mine sites to be overly compacted as long as stability is achieved. It has been cultural barriers and not regulatory barriers that have contributed to the failure of reforestation efforts under the federal law over the past 27 years. Efforts to change the perception that the federal law and regulations impede effective reforestation techniques and interfere with bond release must be implemented. Demonstration of techniques that lead to the successful reforestation of surface mines is one such method that can be used to change perceptions and protect the forest ecosystems that were indigenous to these areas prior to mining. The University of Kentucky initiated a large-scale reforestation effort to address regulatory and cultural impediments to forest reclamation in 2003. During the three years of this project 383,000 trees were planted on over 556 acres in different physiographic areas of Kentucky (Table 1, Figure 1). Species used for the project were similar to those that existed on the sites before mining was initiated (Table 2). A monitoring program was undertaken to evaluate growth and survival of the planted species as a function of spoil characteristics and reclamation practice. In addition, experiments were integrated within the reforestation effort to address specific questions pertaining to sequestration of carbon (C) on these sites.

The exploitation of andesite in open-pit mining must adhere to the specific provisions of Romanian mining law, which emphasizes environmental protection and sustainable resource management. This study focuses on integrating mine planning with environmental assessment and rehabilitation works to ensure compliance with legal requirements. The research examines how comprehensive environmental assessments can guide the design of effective rehabilitation strategies, minimizing the ecological footprint of andesite extraction. Key aspects include land reclamation, restoration, and post-mining land use planning. The findings underscore the importance of aligning mining operations with Romanian legal standards to promote sustainable development and responsible resource extraction.

Current reclamation standards require surface mine operators to address many difficult issues, not the least of which is the selection of an appropriate postmining land use plan. When it is determined that this plan should include cropland, there are some specific problems that must be resolved. The planning process is reviewed and specific recommendations are made. Techniques for soil removal and replacement are compared. If soil compaction is excessive, deep tillage is recommended to alleviate the problem. Differential settlement is another problem that may be encountered. It can be prevented, to a degree, by avoiding the creation of a completely level ground through final grading. If it does occur, procedures are available to correct the problem. Revegetation follows standard agricultural practices.