Entities, Dates, and Languages: Zero-Shot on Historical Texts with T0

Edebi eserin yirminci yüzyılın ilk yarısında Yeni Eleştiri içerisinde otonom ve kurgusal varlık kazanma talebi, yorumlanması hususunda tarihsellikle bağını radikal biçimde koparır. Aynı yüzyılın ikinci yarısında ise “okurun tarihselliği”ne dikkat çeken Alımlama Estetiği ve “metnin tarihselliği, tarihin metinselliği” kavramlarıyla anılagelen Yeni Tarihselcilik, Yeni Eleştiri sonrası bastırılan tarihsel bilince dönüş çabaları arasında anlamlı bir noktada durur. Ancak her iki yaklaşımda da edebi metinleri anlamanın tarihselliğinin, okurun yahut metnin tarihselliği üzerinden şekillendirilmesinin ağır bastığı görülür. Bu yazıda, ortaya çıkan bu durumun, edebi metinleri anlamanın çift yönlü tarihselliğini iki karşı uçtan eksik bıraktığı iddia edilecektir. Diğer taraftan, yazı boyunca tarihselci edebiyat teorisi, Yeni Eleşti-ri, Alımlama Estetiği ve Yeni Tarihselcilik içinde edebiyatın tarihle kurduğu gerilimli ilişkisi konusundaki temel sorular üzerinde durulacaktır. Bu yazı-da ayrıca, edebi metnin okunmasının; okurun kendisini tarih içinde bulu-vermesi, tecrübenin zamansallığı, insanın ve edebi metnin tamamlanamazlığı gibi boyutlarıyla tarihsel olduğu iddia edilecektir. Edebi metnin kurgusal varlığı ve otonomisini incitmeksizin tarihle, tarihsel olanla anlamlı bir ilişki kurabilmesi ancak okumanın tarihselliği üzerinden gerçekleştirilebilir.

Identifying problems in recent technical communication studies of historical medical text, this article suggests ways for researchers to overcome them. Its approach uses five steps for conducting sound historical research: establishing originality for historical textual analysis; adopting an authoritative text for analysis; understanding the genre or form of a historical text; understanding the intellectual or social context for a historical text; and understanding the publishing and readership context of a historical text. These steps are discussed within the context of related fields of inquiry, namely history of medicine, history of the book, literary criticism and historical linguistics, and analytical bibliography. The article concludes by exploring new directions for research in technical communication and history of medicine.

<b>Natural Language Processing for Historical Texts</b> <b>Michael Piotrowski</b> (Leibniz Institute of European History) Morgan &amp; Claypool (Synthesis Lectures on Human Language Technologies, edited by Graeme Hirst, volume 17), 2012, ix+157 pp; paperbound, ISBN 978-1608459469

This paper analyzes how Korean 10th graders read historical texts and suggests several teaching strategies for using historical texts in the class. For this study, I selected three historical texts which have been repeatedly used in elementary, middle and high school Korean history textbooks because I intended to anlayze how students read familiar historical texts. Text 1 is the King Sejeong’s Preface of Hun Min Jeong Um(1443), in which the King Sejong wrote why he created the Korean written language, Hun Min Jeong Um, Text2 is several Chosen scholars’ letter to the King Sejeong. in which the scholars strongly insisted that Hum Min Jeong Um not be used. Text 3 is a short and edited record of Sejeong and the scholars’ conversation.<BR> I asked twenty two 10th graders in Seoul and the Gyeongi province to read those texts and answer to my questions: why they insisted that Hum Nin Jeong Um should be used or not be used. I recorded and transcribed the students’ answers for analysis and comparison.<BR> As a result, I have found that Korean 10th graders’ previous knowledge and prejudice on the writers strongly influence their interpretation of historical texts and their ways of making inference of the writers(speakers)’ intention from the texts. I suggest that when teachers give and ask students to read historical texts, they need to guide students not to infuse any prejudice into the texts.

This chapter examines to what extent it is true that fiction is a problematic source of information about empirical matters. This is done via a comparison with what are often thought of as paradigmatic sources of empirical knowledge, at least in well-formed cases: historical texts. The focus of the discussion is on testimony—roughly, the conveying of information to a hearer with the aim of being believed, partly on the speaker’s say-so—as it occurs in both historical and fictional texts. The chapter concludes that despite appearances, in many typical cases fiction can be a relatively solid source of information about the world, so that indignant responses to occasions of inaccuracy in fiction may not be misplaced after all.

Spelling variation in non-standard language, e.g. computer-mediated communication and historical texts, is usually treated as a deviation from a standard spelling, e.g. 2mr as an non-standard spelling for tomorrow. Consequently, in normalization – the standard approach of dealing with spelling variation – so-called non-standard words are mapped to their corresponding standard words. However, there is not always a corresponding standard word. This can be the case for single types (like emoticons in computer-mediated communication) or a complete language, e.g. texts from historical languages that did not develop to a standard variety. The approach presented in this thesis proposal deals with spelling variation in absence of reference to a standard. The task is to detect pairs of types that are variants of the same morphological word. An approach for spelling-variant detection is presented, where pairs of potential spelling variants are generated with Levenshtein distance and subsequently filtered by supervised machine learning. The approach is evaluated on historical Low German texts. Finally, further perspectives are discussed.

The first systematic attempt to construct a textual history of the Hebrew Bible, that of J. G. Eichhorn, states the nature of the task succinctly: A complete history of the Hebrew text would enumerate, with reference to causes and consequences, all the essential and accidental changes, whether for good or evil, which it has undergone in the process of thousands of years and in its passage through men’s hands, from the time of its first composition down to the latest periods. (1888: 114 = German 3d ed., 1803) If a textual history maps “all the essential and accidental changes” through time, then what we require first is a collection and analysis of the secondary readings. In this formulation, textual history is (to oversimplify only slightly) a history of error. Modern methods for constructing textual histories have refined this view but generally affirm the significance of textual error in historical inquiry. In this area, “error” is used as a shorthand for “readings of secondary origin,” including intentional changes as well as accidental (West 1973: 32). One difference between the procedures of textual history (historia textus) and textual criticism per se (critica textus) is that in the former errors are of primary importance and in the latter they are to be removed (see Chiesa 1992a: 264-67).

The Textual Criticism of Visual and Aural Works G. Thomas Tanselle (bio) Textual criticism—the study of the relationships among variant texts of works—has primarily been associated, throughout its long history extending back to antiquity, with verbal works as transmitted on tangible objects such as parchment and paper. But all works, whether constructed of words or not, have had histories that—if fully told—would reveal stages of growth and change, reflecting not only their creators’ intentions but also the effects of their passage to the public and through time. All works, in other words, have textual histories. Whether or not one chooses in every case to use the word “text” to refer to the arrangement of elements that make up a work is irrelevant; the point is that the issues and problems dealt with in the textual criticism of verbal works have their counterparts in the study of all other works. One reason that this point has not been as widely acknowledged as it ought to have been is perhaps the fact that the varying media used in different arts affect the nature of the accompanying scholarship. The textual criticism of verbal works, for example, often leads to the production of scholarly editions, which embody insights derived from the study of textual history. Because the medium of verbal works—language—is fundamentally intangible, a work can be represented by a text in a newly produced physical object (the one conveying the scholarly edition) without making any alterations to the historic artifacts that had transmitted earlier texts of the work to the present. But a work in a tangible medium, like a painting or a sculpture, cannot as freely be accorded scholarly editions, since any alteration deemed appropriate by the editor would permanently alter the artifact that uniquely is the site of the intended work and thus would deprive the future of some of the evidence that had been available to the editor. Regardless of whether textual scholarship leads to editions or to essays, the medium employed in each art determines the nature of the evidence available for reconstructing textual history. (I am not speaking of the quantity of evidence, which can vary irrespective of the medium.) [End Page 1] The evolution of the text of a painting, for example, may be attested to by sketches, which are analogous in some respects to the drafts of a verbal work. But, being made of a physical material that is applied to a physical surface, a painting may preserve earlier stages of its text that exist on the same surface beneath the layer of paint that is now on top, and these stages can be revealed, in varying degrees, by modern technology. Some works in intangible media, such as literature and music, can be transmitted either by direct imitation or by tangible aides-memoirs. When a textual tradition is entirely of the intangible kind, knowledge of a work’s history is dependent on memory; when texts are passed along in physical objects, there is direct access to certain moments of the past (the moments when the documents were prepared), but the texts thus reported are not necessarily more trustworthy than those carried forward in human memory. The objects, however, inevitably carry traces of their own manufacture; and when those clues are uncovered through analysis, they can help explain how the text came to be constituted as it is. This procedure is the counterpart to scrutinizing a canvas for underlying layers of paint: the examination of objects can be as crucial to reconstructing textual histories of works in intangible media as it is for those in tangible media. Textual critics must of course assess whatever evidence is available to them, but the process must take into account the fact that some evidence may be transmitted by media different from the medium of the work itself. Furthermore, the textual history of a work proceeds beyond the point at which the creator or creators of the work die or cease to make changes in it. The discipline of textual criticism has traditionally focused on the evolution of texts only up to that point, though the evidence often has to come, by default, from later...

Ethnopharmacological relevanceHistorical texts on materia medica can be an attractive source of ethnopharmacological information. Various research groups have investigated corresponding resources from Europe and the Mediterranean region, pursuing different objectives. Regardless of the method used, the indexing of textual information and its conversion into data sets useful for further investigations represents a significant challenge. Aim of the studyFirst, this study aims to systematically catalogue pharmaco-botanical information in the Receptarium of Burkhard von Hallwyl (RBH) in order to identify candidate plants in a targeted manner. Secondly, the potential of RBH as a resource for pharmacological investigations will be assessed by means of a preliminary in vitro screening. Materials and methodsWe developed a relational database for the systematic recording of parameters composing the medical recipes contained in the historical text. Focusing on dermatological recipes, we explored the mentioned plants and their uses by drawing on specific literature. The botanical identities (candidate species) suggested in the literature for the historical plant names were rated based on their plausibility of being the correct attribution. The historical uses were interpreted by consulting medical-historical and modern clinical literature. For the subsequent in vitro screening, we selected candidate species used in recipes directed at the treatment of inflammatory or infectious skin disorders and wounds. Plants were collected in Switzerland and their hydroethanolic crude extracts tested for possible cytotoxic effects and for their potential to modulate the release of IL-6 and TNF in PS-stimulated whole blood and PBMCs. ResultsThe historical text analysis points up the challenges associated with the assessment of historical plant names. Often two or more plant species are available as candidates for each of the 161 historical plant names counted in the 200 dermatological recipes in RBH. On the other hand, our method enabled to draw conclusions about the diseases underlying the 56 medical applications mentioned in the text. On this basis, 11 candidate species were selected for in vitro screening, four of which were used in RBH in herbal simple recipes and seven in a herbal compound formulation. None of the extracts tested showed a noteworthy effect on cell viability except for the sample of Sanicula europaea L. Extracts were tested at 50 μg/mL in the whole blood assay, where especially Vincetoxicum hirundinaria Medik. or Solanum nigrum L. showed inhibitory or stimulatory activities. In the PBMC assay, the root of Vincetoxicum hirundinaria revealed a distinct inhibitory effect on IL-6 release (IC50 of 3.6 μg/mL). ConclusionsUsing the example of RBH, this study illustrates a possible ethnopharmacological path from unlocking the historical text and its subsequent analysis, through the selection and collection of plant candidates to their in vitro investigation. Fully documenting our approach to the analysis of historical texts, we hope to contribute to the discussion on solutions for the digital indexing of premodern information on the use of plants or other natural products.

198Philosophy and Literature Uterature in die task of improving the world. The first requirement of good reading is, for Massey, a wUlingness to accept punishment. "If literature has any lesson," he writes, "it is that there is never enough punishment." And insofar as we read weU, we recognize that "the lessons of the book are directed against ourselves" rather than the fictional characters who seem to learn or deny them. In effect, readers must become Jews, who, Massey comments, "cannot afford the luxury" of the absolute, and must wish for no more than the relative, than the ethical. Far from being the focus of ethical energy, fiction testifies to "the weakness of an incomplete ethical order"; it yearns for the mythical violence from which it has barely emerged, and at the same time suggests the ethical "effortlessness" it cannot achieve. Only a "minor by-product thrown off by the victory of the ethical" over the mythic, fiction remains beset by "uncertainties, weaknesses, and distinctively unethical implications." Massey provides a tonic resolution of two current exaggerations in contemporary ediical tiieory. In his view, phUosophers such as Stuart Hampshire and Bernard WiUiams promote a view of ethics as an enlightened cultivation of the pleasure principle, a view both describe as Aristotelian. On die other hand, HiUis MiUer and John Rajchman refer to Paul de Man and Jacques Lacan in developing what they portray as an ethic that completes the work of Kant, moving decisively beyond the pleasure principle. In Massey's work, both of these orientations are given voice, but the copresence of them reveals each to be a kind ofwish, or fiction. WhUe Massey's work is too unsystematic to provide the "definitive" view ofethics and literature, it does open up the subject in new and useful ways, and suggests many paths for exploration. Tulane UniversityGeoffrey Galt Harpham A World ofDifference, by Barbara Johnson; xvi & 225 pp. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1987, $24.50. Johnson's earlier book, TL· Critical Difference, examined the deconstructive concept of "difference" as it could be applied to literary texts. Oflate her work has considered the implications ofdeconstruction for feminist criticism and for female theories of discourse. A World ofDifference, then, constitutes an attempt "to transfer the analysis of difference out of its accustomed realm of linguistic universaüty or deconstructive allegory and into contexts in which 'difference' is very much at issue in the 'real world.' " The project depends upon the reader's tacit consent that such realms are possessed of institutional boundaries. This aUows us to proceed with a subject matter which "asks questions of difference as if 'differences between' had referential validity" (p. 2). A World ofDifference coUates what might otherwise be a heterogeneous set of Reviews199 essays and places them into four groups or "Parts of the World." Part One, "The Fate of Deconstruction," consists of pieces written in response to some of the polemics of deconstruction in its North American context. The first essay, "Nothing FaUs Like Success," asserts the need of any discourse based on the questioning of boundary lines to "never stop questioning its own" (p. 14), and is followed by other essays which confront the boundaries of deconstructive discourse: possible political functions ofundecidabüity or the fact that it is "not enough to be a woman writing in order to resist the naturalness of female effacement in the subdy male pseudogenderlessness of language" (p. 41). This section ends by placing deconstruction and feminism into a pedagogical context. In Part Two, "Significant Gaps," "the functioning of what is not known in literature or theory" (p. 4) is examined. The first essay takes the obscurity of Thoreau's symbols in Waiden, the lost hound, horse, and turtle dove, and demonstrates that what is lost is "always intensely particular. Yet it is known only in that it is lost" (p. 53). The great achievement of Waiden is to awaken a consideration of our own losses. In "MaUarmé and the Text of History" what is not known becomes, not obscurity, but erasure, whüe in the third chapter, "Teaching Ignorance: L'Ecole des femmes," Johnson sees the question of education in both Molière and Plato as not the transmission of knowledge...

The question of the relation between the history and the literature is a central question of historicism and new historicism. Literature is not possible without the influence of the time; past or present. The depiction of the past is the picture of history in the text, and the portrayal of present becomes the history in the future, hence the literary text is not free from the history in any way. Furthermore, some tests intentionally present the history, not as exactly as the history, but as the interpretation of the history, hence the mode of new historical way of understanding the text. Yogesh Raj's Ranahar provides the lost history of Malla dynasty, primarily the history of the last Malla king, Ranajit. The book is not a pure imagination, neither is it a pure history, but it has the combination of the historical facts and his imagination. Reading this novel, as a fiction, just as pure imagination is an injustice to the veiled part of its history. With the background of the history of Bhaktapur, this article examines the novel Ranahar from historical and new historical perspective on how literature has become a medium to reveal the lost history, the textuality of history.

Nearly thirty years after the emergence of new historicism and cultural materialism in Shakespeare studies, we have had ample time to make and lose the acquaintance of a figure who quietly underwrote these literary-historical labours: Shakespeare the Historian. In a book of that name published in 1996, Paola Pugliatti imagined a Shakespeare who showed an active interest in not only the past and historical events unfolding around him, but also emerging forms of historiography.1 But this Shakespeare, a theorist as well as a chronicler of the past, has not found a permanent place in the scholarly, much less the popular, imagination. Certainly, the failure of Shakespeare the Historian to make his mark in literary studies has something to do with new historicist methodology, in which social energies ‘circulate’ and there can be a ‘Textuality of History’ without the explicit intervention of a readingwriting subject – that is, an Author.2 Another factor might be the resurgence, among writers ranging from William Kerrigan to Harold Bloom, of Shakespeare as an avatar for a Romantic or modern sensibility.3 The rise and fall of Shakespeare the Historian cannot be attributed solely to the vagaries of critical orientation, however. The history of Shakespearian biography has its own story to tell about Shakespeare’s interests and intellectual habits. In this essay, I consider how the figure of Shakespeare the Historian gradually takes shape in a dialectic among critical, biographical and editorial discourse, suggesting that the phenomenon offers an evocative case of what Kenneth Burke would call ‘impure motives’ – a working out of different agendas, not necessarily even fully formed, that coalesces loosely into a consensus story about Shakespeare as a particular kind of cultural icon. At the same time, the fading of Shakespeare the Historian as an authoritative figure in recent times suggests how entrenched biographical traditions can be. This excursion into meta-biography will, I hope, suggest not only why the concept of Shakespeare as a historian is so difficult to sustain, but also how the figure might be re-imagined for a different Shakespearian historiography. For better or worse, the most enduring paradigm for Shakespeare as a thinker and writer remains the post-Romantic image of Shakespeare as a literary icon – lunatic, lover, poet, and philosopher – that was firmly in place by the end of the nineteenth century. This is the image that informs Edward Dowden’s widely disseminated mini-biography, in which Shakespeare begins in the theatre workshop but, as he matures, turns inward to draw on his own emotional experience, descending into

Reviewed by: Studies in the History of the Greek Text of the Apocalypse: The Ancient Stems by Josef Schmid Russell Morton josef schmid, Studies in the History of the Greek Text of the Apocalypse: The Ancient Stems (Text-Critical Studies 11; Atlanta: SBL Press, 2018). Pp. xxxviii + 298. Paper $39.95. Since 1955, Schmid's two-volume Studien zur Geschichte des Griechischen Apokalypse-Textes has remained a valuable resource for textual criticism of Revelation. Its worth is confirmed by the fact that it has continued to be cited by commentators including David E. Aune (WBC, 1997–98), G. K. Beale (NIGTC, 1999), Craig R. Koester (AB, 2014), and Martin Karrer (EKKNT, 2017). Volume 2 of this classic resource, The Ancient Stems, has now been translated and edited by Juan Hernández, Garrick V. Allen, and Darius Müller. Schmid recognized that the text of the Apocalypse was "handled with little piety" (p. 157), resulting in a complex textual history. From the very early root, S. proposed that the textual tradition branched into four distinct "stems." The oldest of the stems is represented by the Codex Alexandrinus (A) and Ephraemi Rescriptus (C). Although each of these texts has its unique features, S. considered that their common "stem" was, perhaps, the one with the greatest agreement to a hypothetical Urtext, or original form. Nevertheless, even these manuscripts were not free from textual contamination. Thus, while S. highly regarded the A and C manuscripts, he rejected Westcott's and Hort's evaluation of them as representatives of a "neutral" text. Another early stem was represented by 𝔭47. At the time of S's research, this papyrus was the earliest known fragment of the Apocalypse. Nevertheless, S. understood 𝔭47's stem to reflect a development of Revelation's textual history subsequent to that represented by the A and C manuscripts. 𝔓47 is most helpful when its corrections are similar to those found in A, C. and Codex Sinaiticus. Although Sinaiticus shares common corrections with 𝔭47, the uncial, likewise, represents a distinct textual stem. S., however, considered Sinaiticus's text to be highly unreliable. Of all its unique readings, S. considered only one correction common to Sinaiticus and 𝔭47, found in Rev 9:20, to be representative of the Urtext (p. 120). The final stem was represented in the commentary by Andreas of Caesarea and the Koine (K) text. Although Wilhelm Bousset and Hermann von Soden thought these traditions were independent of one another, S. concluded that they shared a stem, which could be recognized by their common corrections (p. 155). In numerous places, K and Andreas's commentary provide better witnesses to the Urtext than the other stems, demonstrating that they are not simply dependent on earlier textual traditions. Schmid's Ancient Stems, while valuable, reflects the weaknesses one can expect in a pioneering work. First, S. never discussed his critical theory. Second, he "overrates agreement as evidence of a common lineage and underrates the possibility of coincidental agreement in errors" (p. xxxv). Finally, his language can be imprecise. For example, he never defined a hierarchy of textual forms. The last objection, however, is mitigated when we consider that S. did not think it was possible to recreate connections between the textual forms. In this regard, his understanding of textual development was clearly superior to Westcott's and Hort's hypothesis regarding the development of textual traditions. It is fortunate that the state of research has progressed since 1955. This fact is recognized both in the translators' introduction and the errata section at the end of the volume. The translators' introduction is helpful in various ways. First, it contextualizes S.'s contribution. The translators recognize that S.'s work was transitional. Also, they note that textual [End Page 720] criticism has advanced beyond his work. For example, the translators note that with digital tools and more adequate critical theory, such as the Coherence Based Genealogical Method (CBGM), the time has come for newer approaches to the textual history of the Apocalypse. The translators' introduction does, however, possess one major flaw. When references are made to S.'s Ancient Stems, the page numbers are to the German original, not to the translation. Thus, the incautious...

This chapter studies the textual history of the Shema Yisrael, Deut 6:4-9, as attested by Second Temple Jewish literature and manuscripts. Because the Shema Yisrael was used in various liturgical contexts in late Second Temple Judaism, the study raises the question of how a text's liturgical use affected its textual history. The chapter first addresses the question if there are differences between quotations and allusions in ancient Jewish literature and what can be regarded as a quotation and allusion and what not. It then lists the textual witnesses to Deut 6:4-9 as well as its quotations and allusions. The chapter compiles a list of variant readings and discusses the importance of these variants. In the end, it draws some conclusions about the textual history of Deut 6:4-9 and about how its text was affected by its possible liturgical use. Keywords:ancient Jewish literature; Second Temple period; Shema Yisrael; textual history

The Gothic Version of the Gospels: A Study of its Style and Textual History. By G. W. S. Friedrichsen, M.A., D.Lit. One vol. Pp. 263. Oxford; University Press: London; Humphrey Milford, 1926. 21s. - Volume 41 Issue 1