Enzymes in Vegetable Oil Degumming Processes

The enzymes used in degumming, called phospholipases, specifically act on phospholipids without degrading the oil itself. Degumming using a phospholipase C enzyme allows to meet all market specifications while it increases the oil yield. The aim of this study was to evaluate antioxidant and emulsifier properties of the recovered gum (RG) obtained by enzymatic oil degumming process of crude soybean oil subjected to modifications as deoiling (RG deoiled) or ethanol fractionation (RG soluble and insoluble). RG soluble allowed obtaining more stable oil‐in‐water emulsions (30:70 w/w) in comparison with those by‐products assayed at different concentrations (0.1–1.0%). Also, deoiled soybean lecithin (DSL) and RG deoiled had a similar behavior in relation to the kinetic destabilization (% backscattering profiles), despite the different degumming processes used to obtain these samples. The study on induction times (Metrohm Rancimat) showed a significant antioxidant effect (p<0.05) against a refined sunflower oil associated with all the by‐products analyzed. However, RG soluble and DSL showed a strong effect on the oil stability at high concentrations (1000–2000 ppm). These results showed that the deoiled recovered gum and its derivates obtained by ethanol fractionation are a potential alternative for industrial application as additive.Practical applications: The economic benefits of enzymatic degumming process have also been quantified by several oilseed processors. This process allows obtaining a by‐product with a high concentration of different phospholipids. This study intends to increase the commercial value of this recovered gum contributing to the food industry with useful information about their functional properties.

Crude oils have components such as metals, pigments, phospholipids and waxes, which alter its physicochemical and organoleptic characteristics. These components are commonly removed during the refining process by physicochemical methods. In recent decades, the oil industry has desired the development of biotechnological processes to replace traditional methods. In this paper the enzymatic degumming of ray liver oil is presented as an alternative innovative, sustainable and process to chemical degumming. The traditional process was performed using citric acid, while the enzymatic process was performed using the enzyme phospholipase A1 as degumming agent. Both treatments were performed in a batch thermostated reactor. The efficiency of the enzyme process, assessed by removing phosphorus percentage content, was significantly higher compared to the traditional treatment, (54.70% and 81.31% respectively). The quality characteristics of crude and degummed oils was determined by acidity, peroxide, p-anisidine and TOTOX indexes, beyond moisture, fatty acids contents, color and density. The fatty acid profile was rich in polyunsaturated omega-3 ratio in all the samples analyzed. Quality parameters evaluated were slightly modified by both degumming processes, highlighting a favorable change in the color and appearance of the oil obtained by the process carried out with enzymes. The obtained results suggest that the enzymatic process produces significant improved quality and nutritional values, with better attempt fish oil characteristics for use in the pharmaceutical and functional foods.

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Fruit composition Pectin degrading enzymes Commercial pectinases Enzymes for fruit processing Fruit firming Vegetable processing New trends and conclusion References

Hemicellulose and lignin removal process or degumming of bamboo fibre using cellulase and xylanase was conducted. The objectives of the study were to obtain suitable type of bamboo used in the enzymatic degumming process and to determine the optimum xylanase concentration for the hemicellulose hydrolysis of the selected bamboo. The types of bamboos used in this study were yellow bamboo,ropebamboo,and black bamboo. The study was conducted by enzymatic hydrolyses of the bamboo fibres, and measuring the yield, cellulose content, hemicellulose content, and reducing sugar content. Fibre hydrolysis used the cellulase concentration of 25 U/g and xylanase concentrationsof 50 to 500 U/g. The result showed that yellow bamboo contained cellulose and hemicellulose contents which most susceptible to hydrolysis resulting in reducing sugars, and decreasing cellulose and hemicellule contents of 6.40 % and 12.71%, respectively. The optimum xilanase concentration for the yellow bamboohydolysis was 400 U/g which could hydrolyze hemicellulose by 54.31% in 24 hours.

Functional lipids (e.g., those triacylglyerols containing EPA and DHA, besides others) are related to the prevention and treatment of many cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, fatty acids located at the central bond (sn‐2) of triacylglycerols are more efficiently absorbed via lymphatic route. Hence, the aim of this work is to increase the Omega‐3 content at the sn‐2 position of vegetable and fish oils (high oleic sunflower and sardine oil), via enzymatic interesterification. To that end, direct interesterification and a two‐step treatment (in situ hydrolysis and re‐esterification) were evaluated using Lipozyme TL IM and Novozyme 435. For both lipases, direct esterification led to a minor production of by‐products, that is, free fatty acids and diacylglycerols (<10 mol%), and to an increase of EPA and oleic acid at the sn‐2 position, regardless of the oil mixture composition. The best result was obtained using pure sardine oil and Lipozyme TL IM, (at sn‐2 position, the content of EPA and oleic acid were doubled, while DHA presented an increase of 20%). This is an easy process by which the composition of the oils used in food fortification can be improved.Practical Applications: The regiodistribution of mixtures of fish and vegetables oils is modified using two enzymatic processes with random and 1,3‐specific lipases. Direct interesterification produced minor by‐products (<10 mol%) compared to hydrolysis and in situ re‐esterification. Final triacylglycerols possess double EPA and 20% more DHA at the sn‐2 position, thus, improving the composition of oils intended for Omega‐3 fortified formulations.Enzymatic interesterification is used to enrich vegetable oil with Omega‐3 at sn‐2 for functional lipids used in food fortification.

This work deals with the optimization of an extracellular phospholipase C production by Bacillus cereus (PLCBc) using Response Surface Methodology (RMS) and Box-Behnken design. In fact, after optimization, a maximum phospholipase activity (51 U/ml) was obtained after 6 h of cultivation on tryptone (10 g/L), yeast extract (10 g/L), NaCl (8.125 g/L), pH 7.5 with initial OD (0.15). The PLCBc activity, esteemed by the model (51 U) was very approximate to activity gutted experimentally (50 U). The PLCBc can be considered as thermoactive phospholipase since it showed a maximal activity of 50 U/mL at 60 °C using egg yolk or egg phosphatidylcholine (PC) as substrate. In addition, the enzyme was active at pH 7 and is stable after incubation at 55 °C for 30 min. The application of B. cereus phospholipase C in soybean oil degumming was investigated. Our results showed that when using enzymatic degumming, the residual phosphorus decrease more than with water degumming, indeed, it passes from 718 ppm in soybean crude oil to 100 ppm and 52 ppm by degumming using water and enzymatic process, respectively. The diacylgycerol (DAG) yield showed an increase of 1.2% with enzymatic degumming compared to soybean crude oil. This makes our enzyme a potential candidate for food industrial applications such as enzymatic degumming of vegetable oils.

The food and beverage industry refers to the food and beverage processing industry, which mainly consists of agricultural and byproducts processing, food and beverage manufacturing industry. More specifically, agricultural and by-products processing involves grinding grains of agricultural, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery products; feed processing; vegetable oil and sugar processing; slaughtering and meat processing; aquatic products processing; vegetable, fruit and nut processing; etc. The food manufacturing industry includes bakery products manufacturing; candies, chocolates, and sweetmeats manufacturing; convenient food manufacturing; liquid milk and dairy products manufacturing; canned food manufacturing; condiment manufacturing; fermented product manufacturing; etc. Beverage manufacturing includes soft drink manufacturing and refined tea processing. Brief information of the 36 food and beverage industry in this study is shown in Table 9.1.

The incorporation of nickel onto a commercial FCC catalyst and co-feeding H2 into the reaction system improves the catalytic performance of rapeseed oil cracking, with respect to gasoline and light olefins (propene and butenes) production. On the other hand, the incorporation of platinum, with or without co-feeding of H2, is detrimental to both the conversion and the selectivity. Thus, a judicious choice of metal is vital for performance during vegetable oil cracking.

The present work reports the heterologous expression and biochemical characterization of a novel phosphatidylinositol phospholipase C from Bacillus thuringiensis PL14 (PI-PLCBt) with potential for oil degumming. As degumming is a necessary refining step for all crude vegetable oils, enzymatic degumming tests were performed on crude soybean oil using rPI-PLCBt. Its efficiency was investigated by determining the phosphorus and diacylglycerol (DAG) contents after different types of treatment. Although the water and chemical degumming process can efficiently reduce the phosphorus content, a specific enzymatic process can still be selected giving its high degumming efficiency of 89.4%, with a noticeable reduction in phosphorus content to 13.7 mg kg−1, close to the values of the chemical approach, and a high increase in DAG. Accordingly, enzymatic degumming could be adopted as an alternative to traditional degumming making the process more efficient, eco-friendly and, at the same time, increasing the nutritional value of the final product.

Effective utilization of byproducts can affect the profitability of kraft pulping to produce cellulosic fibers from wood. This review considers opportunities to use tall oil components, obtained from kraft pulping, as a source of raw material for biodiesel fuel, or as a source of additives for petrodiesel. Considerable progress has been achieved with respect to converting vegetable oils to diesel fuel, and some of what has been learned appears to have potential application for processing of wood-derived fatty acids and related compounds. Alkaline – catalyzed trans esterification strategies, while seemingly well adapted for relatively pure vegetable oil source materials, may not be the best fit for the processing of tall oil fractions. The promising strategies to consider include acid – catalyzed esterification, enzymatic processes, hydrogenation, and the use of supercritical methanol.

Vitamin E is essential in the human body which naturally found in vegetable fats and oil and their derived products. Several palm-based oils obtained from palm oil mills and refineries were revised in this paper as the raw material for vitamin E. Tocopherols and tocotrienols isomers of the vitamin E content are found nearly comparable with crude palm oil. To obtain the tocopherols and tocotrienols, various developed technologies for the extraction were also reviewed. These include the solvent-based extraction, chemical modification, adsorption, enzymatic process, molecular distillation, microwave-assisted extraction and membrane technology. Each of the technologies has the advantages as well as limitations. Therefore, process design and selection for the chosen technology are crucial in order to determine recovery of vitamin E obtained, time efficiency, cost effectiveness, safety of products and environmentally friendly impacts. A green technology approach could be further diversified and manifested for sustainable process of vitamin E.

One of the promising types of vegetable raw materials in Ukraine, which can be used for the development of resource-saving technologies, are vegetable oils. The products of their processing serve as raw materials for obtaining surface-active substances, which are used in the production of food additives, pharmaceutical products, detergents and cosmetics, biofuels and additives. The most common oil in Ukraine is sunflower, which, like other vegetable oils, can be processed to form fatty acids and their salts. The initial process of vegetable oil processing is hydrolysis. The technological parameters of the sunflower oil hydrolysis process under different conditions were studied. It was investigated that the alkaline hydrolysis of sunflower oil in the presence of sodium hydroxide proceeds the fastest in comparison with thermal methods in the presence of sulfuric acid and superheated steam, the conversion of raw materials reaches 100 % in the 25th minute of the experiment, at a process temperature of 60 °C. The waste in this process is a glycerol solution, which can be used to obtain its esters for the purpose of implementing a zero-waste technology scheme. A method of using sunflower oil hydrolysis waste is proposed, which consists in its esterification with acetic acid, as a result of which triacetin is formed – a valuable product for use in many sectors of the national economy. In the food industry, triacetin is known as a food additive under the code E1518, which is used as a humectant and stabilizer to preserve freshness, as a plasticizer and binder thickener, as a solvent and odor fixer. Due to its ability to be broken down into its components – glycerol and acetic acid and absorbed without any side effects in the human body, triacetin is safe for use. It was investigated that the esterification reaction between the waste product of the hydrolysis of vegetable oil – a solution of glycerin in water and acetic acid took place at a conversion of raw materials of 100 %, while the selectivity of the target product remained constant at the level of 80 %. At the same time, the concentration of the glycerol solution did not affect either the amount of conversion or the value of selectivity. As a catalyst in this process, p-toluenesulfonic acid was used in a relatively small amount – 1.0 % by volume, so it did not significantly affect the composition of the reaction products, and this, in the future, makes it possible to conduct the process without additional purification from traces of the catalyst.

<div class="htmlview paragraph">From the viewpoint of primary energy diversification and CO<sub>2</sub> reduction, interests of using Biomass Fuel are rising. Some kinds of FAME (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester), which are obtained from oil fats like vegetable oil using transesterification reaction with methanol, are getting Palm Oilpular for bio-diesel recently.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In this study, we have conducted many experiments of palm oil hydrogenations using our pilot plants, and checked the reactivity and the pattern of product yields.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">As a result, we figured out that the hydrocarbon oil equivalent to the conventional diesel fuel can be obtained from vegetable oils in good yield under mild hydrogenation conditions.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Moreover, as a result of various evaluations for the hydrogenated palm oil (oxidation stability, lowtemperature flow property, LCA, etc.), we found that the hydrogenated palm oil by our technology has performances almost equivalent to conventional diesel fuel.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In addition, we found unique properties compared to conventional diesel fuel, such as high cetane number and lower contents of sulfur and aromatic hydrocarbons. Therefore, we hope our technology could also improve the future automobile performance.</div>

ABSTRACTPhthalate esters received a considerable attention owing to its various applications and the harmful health effects resulting from phthalate exposure; thus, finding an alternative to phthalate derivatives became a necessity. Phthalate esters are commonly used as plasticizer in polymer formulation; in particular for poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) formulation. According to the researches in the last 18 years, epoxidized vegetable oils are one of the alternatives that are strongly encouraged to substitute phthalate esters since they were proven to be valid in various applications, eco‐friendly and sustainable resource. However, most of the production practices for epoxidized vegetable oil are via conventional epoxidation that concentrates on a catalyst that is homogeneous and non‐reusable. This type of catalyst, however, causes several problems later in the process. Therefore, the selective epoxidation of vegetable oils process requires new catalytic systems that are more aligned with the green chemistry principles. This article reviews the harmful health effects associated with the exposure to phthalate esters products, explains the usage of oleochemicals resources as a substitute to phthalate esters and describes different approaches for the epoxidation of vegetable oils. Finally, it draws attention to the usage of epoxy and bio‐based compounds as plasticizers in PVC manufacturing. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018, 135, 46270.

India is the world's second greatest producer of vegetables after China, however over 30% of the fruits and vegetables grown in the country are wasted. Vegetable wastes include rotten vegetables, peels, shells, scraped portions of vegetables and inedible parts discarded during collection, handling, transportation and processing. Lack of knowledge and awareness among farmers, poor infrastructure, faulty harvesting, unsuitable transport and storage facilities are major causes of loss. 5 R system of waste management including refuse, reduce, recycle, reuse and recover is an effective way of managing vegetable waste. Non-toxic, biodegradable waste of vegetables can be transformed into various valuable output products like biogas, power alcohol, biofuel, compost and vermicompost. Livestock is currently one of the agricultural subsectors in emerging countries that is expanding at the fastest rate. According to recent research, co-products from the processing of fruits and vegetables can be effectively utilized as functional feed components in farm animals' diets. Vegetable wastes are rich in vitamins and minerals and are suitable raw materials to produce high-value chemicals or metabolites such as phenolic compounds, terpenes, fatty acids, dietary fiber, saponins, pigments, food additives and phytoestrogens Bio-plastic are manufactured from renewable biomass sources such as maize starch, potato starch, cassava starch, vegetable oil and have biodegradable qualities. The utilization of fruit and vegetable waste as a carbon source is an interesting alternative to reduce the production costs of microbial exopolysaccharides like xanthan and pullulan which has use in the pharmaceutical, medical, cosmetic and confectionary industries.