Ethnic Conflicts- Case Study: Kosovo

The scientific article examines the theoretical and legal aspects of the rights of national minorities and indigenous peoples through the prism of political and legal thought, with a special emphasis on the concept of multiculturalism developed by V. Kymlicka. It is established that the rights of national communities occupy a special place in the system of human rights, as they combine individual and collective dimensions of legal status and reflect the historically formed need of societies to preserve cultural identity. It is found that the development of political and legal ideas regarding minority rights originates in the philosophical works of J.G. Herder, J.S. Mill, O. Bauer and other thinkers, who emphasized the importance of cultural diversity and the need to form mechanisms for its protection within the state. It is summarized that these concepts became the theoretical basis for further doctrinal approaches of the 20th century, for the development of provisions of international law regarding minority rights and the gradual recognition of collective rights as a component of the system of fundamental human rights. It is substantiated that the political and legal thought of V. Kymlicka is of decisive importance for the modern understanding of the rights of national minorities and indigenous peoples, since it integrated the categories of cultural autonomy, equality and democratic pluralism into the framework of the liberal theory of law. It emphasized that V. Kymlicka did not limit himself to stating the need for respect for cultural rights, but proposed a model of their institutional provision, which combines the recognition of the rights of communities with the preservation of general democratic standards. It is proved that his concept of multiculturalism became a qualitative shift in the theoretical and legal understanding of the legal status of minorities, as it laid the idea of their inseparability from the system of human rights, which was previously dominantly interpreted through the individualistic dimension. The article traces the evolution of political and legal ideas about the rights of minorities and indigenous peoples in the context of the development of the general theory of law, reveals the main patterns of their formation and finds out that the modern stage is characterized by a combination of globalization trends with the requirement to preserve cultural identity. In summary, the ideas of V. Kymlicka and his predecessors create a holistic theoretical and legal platform for further scientific research in the field of realizing the rights of national minorities and indigenous peoples, which has not only historical and doctrinal, but also practical significance for lawmaking and law enforcement in democratic states.

This article deals with the issue of the protection of national minority rights and the system of human rights protection in general. The author reviews the latest research and publications of scholars from Ukraine and abroad. The author describes the regulatory provisions of the current legislation in this area. It is noted that national minorities are an important component of society and have the right to protect their rights and interests. The author also examines the definition of a national minority and its types, as well as the system of protection of national minority rights in the UN and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The author also emphasizes that the topic of minorities, in particular, LGBT people, is very relevant today and is actively discussed in journalism, special scientific literature, political practice and law- making. The article reveals the scientific approaches to systematization of the main issue of this scientific issue. The author identifies the advantages and disadvantages of scholars’ approaches to the article’s subject matter. Most types of minority rights are analyzed. This topic concerns not only human rights issues but also general stability and peace in society. In general, the article concludes that the protection of national minority rights is an important component of human rights protection in general. Society must take measures to ensure equality and protect the rights of minorities, as this has an impact on the preservation of peace and harmony in society as a whole. Various international and national instruments and bodies exist to ensure the protection of national minority rights, such as the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, the European Court of Human Rights and others. However, further work is needed to improve the system of protection of national minority rights, as problems of discrimination and rights violations still exist. Understanding and respect for the rights of national minorities is a prerequisite for any progressive society, as it contributes to the preservation of peace and harmony in society as a whole.

In the 20th century, most European nations formed their national states. Yet, given the fact that Europe is populated by many ethnicities, there is no national state that does not include an ethnic or religious minority within its territory. The development of human right guarantees at the global and European levels has contributed to the development of minority rights and their guarantees. Many legal documents in Europe guarantee the fundamental rights of minorities but the most important legal act is the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (1995). Despite being one of the most developed countries in South-eastern Europe and ratifying the CoE Framework Convention and other human rights legal documents, Greece has a hostile approach towards national minorities, especially towards the Macedonian ethnical minority. The first part of the paper analyzes the rights of national minorities in European legal documents: the CoE Framework Convention and the European Convention on Human Rights (1950), and their significance for minority rights. The analysis also covers the position of minority rights in the law of the European Union. The second part of the paper focuses on the position and rights of the Macedonian national minority in Greece. While the reviewed legal documents show the European organizations’ commitments to guaranteeing minority rights, the research in this paper proves the Greek state’s violation of minority rights and, particularly, its antagonistic approach towards Macedonian minority rights.

This note is focused on the problems of ensuring the rights of national minorities and indigenous peoples in Ukraine. These issues are considered in accordance with theoretical approaches in the social sciences, as well as the practice of protecting the rights of national minorities and indigenous peoples in Ukraine. Court decisions on discrimination against the rights of these vulnerable groups are analysed. The research is aimed at the scientific search for ways to improve the legal regulation of national-ethnic relations to ensure the rights of national minorities and groups. In accordance with a comprehensive theoretical and practical approach, an analysis of Ukrainian legislation and case-law on the protection of the rights of national minorities and indigenous people is given. Problems of ensuring the rights of national minorities and indigenous peoples are revealed. Some promising legislative improvements are proposed to eliminate violations and ensure the rights of these groups.

The article discusses debatable theoretical and complex practical problems associated with the implementation of the “right of peoples to self-determination”: the absence of a generally accepted definition of a “national minority”; a way to identify the “will of the people” to self-determination; the relationship between the borders of the state and the borders of nations; national self-determination and democracy; the right to national self-determination and the right to popular sovereignty; the compatibility of individual rights, the rights of national minorities to self-determination and the principle of the inviolability of state borders. As a result, the author comes to the conclusion that there is no one “only true” form of solving these problems, ideally, the people make the choice (in practice, their political elite) based on a large number of (sometimes not completely rational and even random) factors. However, the most important issue is to solve the problem of effective representation of ethnic groups’ / national minorities’ interests, since ethnic groups and other minorities are alienated when their access to power is limited. Author considers that for to solve this problem in states, that respect human rights, ethnicity must have only cultural, not political importance, because the subject of political sovereignty in these states is not “ethnos” but “demos”, so that is, all citizens of the state who may belong to different ethnic and cultural communities. That’s why the organic combination of collective rights of ethnic communities and minorities in multi-ethnical and polycultural society with the rights of individuals guaranteed and protected by the state is the most suitable way to provide democratic policy. This policy doesn’t lead to the formation of new ethnic nations and the emergence of new ethnocratic states. In that situation, inter-ethnic relations must not be based on an ideal model but on existing ethnopolitical reality and using the existing potential of existing imperfect political institutions.

The article examines the activities of the Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) in promoting national minority rights between 1994 and 2000. The study is based on a detailed analysis of documents from the Foreign Policy Archive of the Russian Federation, which are introduced into scholarly circulation for the first time. The chronological scope is defined by the period when Ole Espersen served as Commissioner on Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Including the Rights of Persons Belonging to Minorities. The findings suggest that Russia, concerned about the situation of the Russian-speaking po­pulation in the Baltic States, was the main initiator of CBSS efforts to strengthen na­tional minority rights. Although the problem of discrimination against Russian speakers in the Baltic States remained unresolved, the Commissioner’s activities significantly contributed to the standardization of the legal and institutional framework for protecting vulnerable population groups, particularly national minorities. The authors argue that these activities also sup­ported the consolidation of European human rights institutions and encouraged Russia to enhance the national legislation in this field.

Although collective cultural rights are included in international human rights law, their place and their nature and significance are not well-explored or understood. This chapter aims to classify collective cultural rights in international human rights instruments and to explore how these rights fit in the general framework of international human rights law. In much of the debate on collective rights, cultural rights are used as examples, because cultural rights are rights that clearly demand a collective approach. This chapter provides various examples of legal provisions in international human rights instruments that can be classified as collective cultural rights to show the different forms these rights may take. Collective cultural rights in international human rights law are challenged by different contentious (legal) issues. For instance, there is a lack of clarity concerning the object and the subject of collective rights and the possible tension between collective rights and individual rights. The inclusion of collective cultural rights in international human rights law reaffirms the importance of collective (cultural) interests and collective subjects, but does not provide clear answers to all these issues. The two central components of collective cultural rights, namely ‘community’ and ‘culture’, remain difficult to define. Moreover, they are not static notions, which makes their translation into substantive rights to be invoked and enjoyed by individuals and communities a complex matter.

У статті доведено, що наразі питання освіти у ОБСЄ опрацьовуються у декількох вимірах: захист освітніх прав меншин, освіта й права людини та освіта в умо-вах конфлікту. Автором підтверджено, що Бюро з де-мократичних інститутів і прав людини ОБСЄ серед ін-шого має на меті забезпечення поваги різноманітності і взаєморозуміння під час освіти та забезпечення освіти у сфері прав людини. У статті відображено увагу по-льових операцій ОБСЄ до освітніх питань щодо реформ системи освіти, включаючи юридичну освіту, визна-чення результатів і стандартів навчання, усунення дис-кримінації та відчуження під час освіти. Автором досліджено Гаазькі рекомендації щодо прав національних меншин на освіту і Пояснювальну записку до них, методичні публікації ОБСЄ «Викла-дання тем голокосту і антисемітизму. Огляд і аналіз освітніх підходів» «Протидія нетерпимості та дискри-мінації щодо мусульман: керівні принципи для викла-дачів. Боротьба з ісламофобією через освіту», «Керівні принципи з освіти в сфері прав людини для співробіт-ників правоохоронних органів» та «Керівні принципи з освіти в сфері прав людини для працівників охорони здоров’я».
 Автором відзначено, що підходи ОБСЄ до форму-вання власного закладу вищої освіти мають певну спе-цифіку, відмінну від підходів до цього питання ООН та установ системи ООН. Європейські стандарти вищої освіти зазнають вагомого розвитку через діяльність ОБСЄ, що реалізує власні завдання, як керуючись по-требою забезпечення права на освіту, так й врахову-ючи значущість освіти для сталого співробітництва й безпеки. Недоговірний характер самої ОБСЄ та участь в організації не лише європейських, але й усіх постра-дянських та деяких інших держав зумовлює специфіку як охоплення, так і методів застосування спеціальних стандартів ОБСЄ у сфері освіти. Основна увага в цих стандартах приділена захисту права меншин на освіту, запровадженню в рамках осві-ти анти-дискримінаційних механізмів, ефективному навчанню правам людини, зокрема й у рамках формаль-ної вищої освіти різних кваліфікацій. Автором дослі-джено договірне, законодавче та статутне забезпечення діяльності власного навчального закладу організації – Академії ОБСЄ у Бішкеку. У статті доведено, що ця Академія слугує специфічним прикладом реалізації наднаціональних практик ОБСЄ у сфері вищої освіти для конкретної установи. Автор резюмує, що реалізація стандартів ОБСЄ у сфері вищої освіти в Україні може слугувати підґрунтям для нових наукових досліджень.

The purpose of the article is to study the current state of implementation and legal protection of the rights of the Roma ethnic minority in Ukraine. It is noted that the Roma lag far behind the main part of the population in terms of education, employment, housing and health care, and are almost completely unrepresented in political institutions. In this regard, a large number of Roma have limited opportunities to improve their quality of life and integrate with the majority of Ukrainian society. It was concluded that the causes of prejudice against Roma and existing restrictions on the realization of their civil rights include: segregation, traditional features of the internal social structure of Roma communities, and the lack of constructive dialogue between Roma communities, local communities, local authorities, and state authorities. An important role in solving these problems belongs to the international foundation «Renaissance», which is one of the largest Ukrainian charitable foundations and non-governmental organization. In order to create conditions for the realization and protection of Roma rights in Ukraine in various spheres of public life, the Council of Europe project «Strengthening the protection of national minorities, including Roma, and minority languages in Ukraine» was launched in 2018, based on the recommendations of two monitoring bodies of the Framework Convention Council of Europe on the Protection of National Minorities and the European Charter of Regional or Minority Languages. The results of sociological research on the current problems of legal protection of the rights of the Roma population are presented. It is emphasized that the State Service of Ukraine for Ethnopolitics and Freedom of Conscience and the Secretariat of the Commissioner of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine for Human Rights deal with the issues of implementation and protection of Roma rights. It is concluded that the main directions for improving the legal protection of the rights of the Roma population are: carrying out educational work; provision of free legal aid to Roma; strengthening the legal opportunities of Roma; development of bodies of self-organization of the Roma population; establishment of communication between Roma and residents of cities and towns; integration of Roma into Ukrainian society.

The article analyzes the formation and development of an international institute for the protection of the rights of national minorities, focusing on the role of the League of Nations in this field. The provisions of universal acts adopted under the auspices of the United Nations, in particular, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966, the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities of 1992, are disclosed. The following international regional acts are described: the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 5 November 1992, Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, 1995, the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE of 1990, European Security Charter of 1999, the Oslo Recommendations Regarding the Linguistic Rights of National Minorities of 1998, the Lund Recommendations on the Effective Participation of National Minorities in the Political and Political Life of 1999, Recommendations Promoting the Participation of National Minorities in the Electoral Process of 2001, Recommendations on the Use of Minority Languages in Broadcasting of 2003, Recommendations on Policing in a Multinational Society of 2006, Bolzano/Bozen Recommendations on National Minorities in Inter-State Relations of 2008, The Ljubljana Guidelines on Integration of Diverse Societies of 2012, the Graz Recommendations on Access to Justice and National Minorities of 2017; their key provisions and role in protecting national minorities are identified. Considering the fact that at the international universal and regional level institutional bodies and officials are responsible for protecting the rights of national minorities, the powers of the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities and the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on minority issues have been disclosed. The focus is also on the Minority Forum, which serves as a platform to encourage dialogue and cooperation on issues relating to persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities. The relevant conclusions are drawn.

The problem of minorities is one of the challenges that have emerged recently, though it does exist throughout history. People belonging to national, religious or linguistic minorities cannot be denied. The concern for the rights of minorities is a reflection of international awareness of individual or collective human rights. The minority enjoys all the rights stipulated in international conventions and treaties concerning human rights and addressing any violation of these rights of minorities. This international response is launched for the purpose of conformity with the international legal reference of the United Nations on one hand. On the other hand, imposing the organizational development of the principles of human rights and its fundamental freedoms and committing an international obligations to protect all elements of human rights, in particular the right to self-determination within the international system framework from one point of view and by means of international intervention to protect those rights as well. Thus, we find that international intervention to protect those rights; on the other hand, recognition of the rights of minorities is growing as an integral part of the work of the United Nations in the promotion and protection of human rights, sustainable human development and peace and security.

Post–Cold War Europe witnessed the resurgence of different forms of nationalism and also the re-establishment of a minority rights regime. At the surface level, rights of national minorities seem to undermine nationalism as a political organization principle, but on a closer investigation the relationship between the two is more complex. This article uses insights from the English school’s theorizing on primary and secondary institutions to investigate the relationship between the primary institution of nationalism and secondary institution of minority rights regime. After a brief discussion of nationalism as a primary institution and its influence on the implementation of universal human rights, this article presents a detailed study of the minority rights regime analysing how it challenges, transforms and reproduces nationalism as a primary institution of contemporary European society of states.

Problems and unresolved issues in the field of the Ukrainian political nation consolidation and national minorities rights protection are analysed. The normative legal acts regulating ethno-national relations in Ukraine are analysed. The necessity of reforming the ethno-national legislation, elimination of declarative, contradictory and conflicting norms is proved. Threats caused by separatist manifestations are shown. The main values, guidelines and directions of the Ukrainian state ethno-national policy development are determined. The creation of a legal framework for ethnocultural autonomy in Ukraine will contribute to the formation of an effective system of protection of the rights of citizens belonging to national minorities in Ukraine, which will meet international standards in the field of protection of national minorities. , and will allow to approximate the legislation of Ukraine in the field of protection of the rights of national minorities to the EU law. Each national minority will have the right to create its own ethnocultural (extraterritorial) autonomy in order to address the issues of preservation and development of ethnocultural identity without requirements and claims to the state and the state budget. This will eliminate the declarativeness of the relevant legislation, increase the level of self-organization of national minorities, redirect ethno-territorial requirements to ethnocultural, promote harmonization of ethno-national relations and interethnic harmony in Ukraine, consolidation of Ukrainian society into a political nation based on common citizenship

Los derechos humanos han evolucionado hasta el punto de reconocer derechos de naturaleza colectiva como los derechos de las minorías étnicas. Este artículo explica cómo pueden categorizarse los derechos de las minorías étnicas como derechos humanos. La investigación es de corte analítico-conceptual, utiliza el método de investigación deductivo y los de interpretación jurídica: histórico, sistemático, sociológico y teleológico o finalista, para concluir con la identificación de algunos criterios que pueden servir de base para incluir derechos colectivos como los de las minorías étnicas, en el discurso contemporáneo de los derechos humanos

The main research objective of the study presented in this article was the ethnopolitics of the Slovak Republic, one of the V4 countries, namely the legislative base and the institutional ensuring the functioning of a system of protection of the national and ethnic minorities’ rights. Slovakia is one of the postsocialist countries that has made the transition to democracy on the way to joining the European Union. The country’s authorities conducted a series of reforms in the ethnopolitical sphere in accordance with European standards. An ethnopolitical picture and separate ethnopolitical challenges in the Slovak Republic are similar, especially in the border areas. Thus, the main goal of the ethnopolitics of Slovakia is to secure the rights of all minorities, interethnic tolerance and ensure the intercultural dialogue. Representatives of national and ethnic minorities in the Slovak Republic have a number of rights and opportunities, directly dependent on citizens whether they can organize themselves and use existing mechanisms for the benefit of their own community. In addition, the state's ethnopolitical strategy provides bilateral cooperation with the homelands of individual minorities. The bilateral cooperation between Ukraine and Slovakia is one of the examples. Bilateral cooperation between Ukraine and the Slovak Republic in the field of protection and ensuring of minority rights is based on the work of the Intergovernmental Slovak-Ukrainian Commission for National Minorities, Education and Culture. The recommendations of the commission are an important tool for constructive dialogue between Slovakia and Ukraine, ensuring good neighborly relations.