Examining the Interplay between the Cognitive and Emotional Aspects of Gender Differences in Spatial Processing.

While men and women do not differ in levels of general intelligence, gender differences do exist for more specific cognitive abilities. In particular, gender gaps in spatial ability are the largest of all gender differences in cognitive abilities. Research on gender differences in spatial ability is reviewed, including the role that parents and educators can play in encouraging these skills using formal instruction, at home and through play. A variety of psychobiosocial factors contribute to these gender differences. Research has shown that the development of spatial ability lays down the foundation for quantitative reasoning, a collective term for mathematical and science skills. For this reason, some researchers have claimed that they contribute to the underrepresentation of women in STEM-fields. However, like other cognitive skills, instruction and practice can yield dramatic improvements in performance on spatial tasks, reducing the magnitude of gender differences. There is also evidence of transfer effects and persistence across the passage of time. A growing number of educational psychologists have argued that early education of spatial intelligence is necessary as a matter of equity for all students, and that it may offer substantial benefits for the later development of mathematical and scientific skills across all ability levels. Parents and caregivers can also encourage children by using spatial language, providing children with enrichment activities that offer spatial learning experiences. Concerted efforts to address the gender gap in spatial ability has the potential to translate into a reduction of the gender gap in STEM, but further research is required to determine which types of training and at what intervals is most efficacious.

In this study, we explored the relationship between two predictors of engineering success: spatial ability and self-efficacy. Spatial ability, especially mental rotation, has been linked to successful performance in engineering. Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in his or her ability to perform successfully [1] and has received increased attention as a predictor of persistence in STEM fields. We examined the possible relationships between mental rotation, spatial visualization, engineering self-efficacy, and self-efficacy for two subsets of skills important in engineering majors: tinkering and design. Tinkering refers to the hands-on ability to construct, take apart, modify, and repair mechanical devices while design refers to the ability to develop a system, component or set of processes to solve a specific problem. We also investigated the possible role of previous design or tinkering related experience such as certain hands-on hobbies. We found spatial ability was correlated with multiple forms of engineering self-efficacy in less experienced, but not more experienced engineering students. Tinkering and design related hobbies were not related to spatial ability, but were related to tinkering and design self-efficacy. They also predicted performance on a measure of mechanical reasoning. Gender differences in engineering students on spatial ability and general engineering self-efficacy were small. The largest and most consistent gender differences were on tinkering-related experience and tinkering self-efficacy, although the latter appeared to be mitigated by the amount of engineering experience. Individual differences in tinkering-related experience is an understudied possible source of individual and gender differences in STEM fields such as engineering.

The main objectives of this study were to investigate: (a) gender differences in spatial abilities of kindergartners, (b) the effects of a teaching, using dynamic assessment (DA), on cognitive modifiability of spatial abilities, and (c) the effects of task characteristics (rotation, symmetry, complexity) on mental rotation performance. Thirty two boys and 32 kindergarten girls, 5 to 6 years old, were administered the Spatial Relations subtest (PMA), the Mental Rotation subtest (CMB), the Visual Figure Ground test, and the Dynamic Embedded Figures Test. The results revealed a significant pre- to postteaching improvement in mental rotation and spatial visualization in both gender groups. Boys showed higher performance than girls on easy preteaching mental rotation tasks but the girls closed the gap on the postteaching test. On difficult mental rotation tasks (e.g., higher rotation or higher complexity) boys and girls showed similar pre-teaching performance, but boys showed higher performance than girls on the postteaching test. Pearson correlations between spatial and verbal abilities were higher among girls than among boys — a result which was explained by the girls’ tendency to use their verbal abilities for solving spatial problems, especially for the spatial visualization tasks. Boys tended to separate between the two domains and use a holistic spatial strategy.

Objective: This study investigated the factors influencing college students’ continuous utilization intention of virtual simulation software (Animation Character Virtual Simulation Software V1.0) in the context of current efforts to promote sustainable educational practices and explored design strategies to enhance this willingness in a sustainable manner. Method: Based on the Expectation Confirmation Model of Information System Continuance (ECM-ISC), this study developed a model to examine the impact of college students’ spatial ability (SA) on their virtual simulation learning behavior. Upon administering a questionnaire to the selected participants (N = 164), the survey data were analyzed for reliability and validity. Subsequently, the relationships among the model’s variables were explored. Result: For college students majoring in Digital Media Art, spatial ability significantly positively affects their sustainable utilization intention of virtual simulation software within 3D virtual scenarios. Meanwhile, it positively impacts perceived ease of use (PEU) and flow experience (FE), which are key factors in promoting the sustainable adoption of such technologies. The introduced spatial ability, perceived ease of use, and flow experience influence the endogeneity of the ECM-ISC. Moreover, gender differences in spatial ability are profound among these students. Conclusion: The primary influencing pathway is spatial ability → flow experience → expectation confirmation → perceived usefulness → continuous utilization intention. Enhancing spatial ability is one effective way to advance virtual simulation software, offering new insights for its design and long-term improvement in alignment with sustainable educational practices.

Evidence on the poorer spatial visualization ability in various Negro populations compared to the white populations and on the direction and magnitude of sex difference in spatial ability relative to other abilities suggests the genetic hypothesis that spatial ability is enhanced by a sex-linked recessive gene and that, since the 20-30 percent admixture of Caucasian genes in American Negroes came mostly from male white ancestors, relatively fewer X-linked than autosomal Caucasian genes were transmitted to the American Negro gene pool. The genetic model as explicitly formulated indicates the kinds of data which could substantiate or disporve the theory, but which do not now exist.

Spatial skills are key predictors of achievement in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines, despite being acquired through everyday life and not formally taught in schools. Spatial skills include a diverse group of abilities broadly related to reasoning about properties of space such as distance and direction. Recently, more research has investigated the link between spatial skills and spatial anxiety, defined as a fear or apprehension felt when engaged in spatial thinking. There has yet to be a meta-analytic review summarizing these findings. Thus, the goal of this preregistered meta-analytic review is to provide an estimate of the size of the relation between spatial anxiety and spatial skills while considering several moderators (grade/age group, sex, spatial skills measure/subtype, spatial anxiety measure/subtype, geographical region of sample, publication type/year, and risk of bias). Analyzing 283 effect sizes accumulated from research conducted between 1994 and 2020, we found a small, negative, and statistically significant (r = -.14) correlation between spatial anxiety and spatial skills. Results showed that effect sizes including mental manipulation anxiety, scalar comparison anxiety, and navigation skill were often significantly stronger than effect sizes including measures of other subtypes. The magnitude of the relation was not significantly different in children and adults, though effect sizes tended to be weaker for younger samples (r = -.08). Our results are consistent with previous findings of a significant relation between spatial anxiety and skills, and this work bridges a gap in the existing research, lending support to future research efforts investigating spatial cognition. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Over the past several decades, substantial evidence has accumulated demonstrating sex differences in spatial abilities. Males outperform females in most visual tasks that require processing visuospatial information. Notably, in real-world contexts, this capacity also involves other sensory modalities, such as the auditory system. However, unlike visuospatial abilities, research on sex differences in auditory spatial abilities remains sparse. The present study investigated sex differences in an auditory spatial working memory task. Seventy-seven participants (41 female) completed the Audio-Corsi task, the well-established visual Mental Rotation Test (MRT), and a cognitive strategy questionnaire. Results revealed that males outperformed females on both the Audio-Corsi and the MRT. Interestingly, a significant relationship between performance on the Audio-Corsi and the MRT emerged, but only among females. Furthermore, to complete the Audio-Corsi, males reported employing the use of a holistic cognitive strategy more than females. These findings demonstrate that sex differences in spatial abilities extend across sensory modalities, encompassing both auditory and visual domains. They also underscore the distinct cognitive strategies employed by males and females in spatial processing. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of sex differences in spatial cognition.

Students’ spatial visualization ability is a key component in understanding geometry, yet many students exhibit suboptimal performance in this area. This study aimed to (1) evaluate the quality of the Geogebra-assisted 6E-IM learning model, (2) examine its effect on students' spatial visualization ability, and (3) describe students' ability levels after receiving the intervention. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was used. The independent variable was the Geogebra-assisted 6E-IM model, while the dependent variable was students’ spatial visualization ability. A total of 60 students participated, with 30 assigned to the experimental group and 30 to the control group. Data were collected through tests, interviews, and questionnaires. Quantitative results showed that students in the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group (p < 0.05), indicating a positive effect of the Geogebra-assisted 6E-IM model on spatial visualization ability. Qualitative analysis revealed that students with high ability met all spatial visualization indicators; those with moderate ability met two indicators, while those with low ability met only one. These findings demonstrate that the integration of Geogebra in the 6E-IM learning model can effectively enhance students’ spatial visualization skills in geometry. This study contributes to the development of innovative, technology-integrated instructional strategies in mathematics education.

ABSTRACTSpatial skills are important for student success in STEM disciplines at the K‐12 educational level. Teachers' spatial skills and feelings about completing spatial tasks influence their teaching as well as their students' spatial learning. However, the relation between teachers' spatial skills and their spatial anxiety is not well understood. Here we investigated if teachers' spatial skills influence two kinds of small‐scale spatial anxiety: (a) anxiety for tasks involving visual imagery and (b) anxiety for tasks involving mental manipulations. In addition, we investigated if teachers' spatial skills in conjunction with their small‐scale spatial anxiety influence the integration of spatial practices, such as gestures and diagrams, into their teaching. Eighty‐two K‐12 teachers completed two subscales of small‐scale spatial anxiety, a measure of spatial skills, and a teaching activities questionnaire. Results indicate that teachers' spatial skills are negatively associated with their spatial anxiety for mental manipulation tasks, and positively associated with their use of spatial practices. These findings highlight the need to account for teachers' spatial skills when considering how to improve students' spatial learning.

This study investigated prospective social studies teachers’ spatial abilities. It was conducted with 234 prospective teachers attending Social Studies Teaching departments at Education Faculties of two universities in Central and Southern Anatolia. This study, designed according to the explanatory-sequential design, is a mixed research method, involving two stages. The first stage was conducted in the causal-comparative research design. The data were collected using “Mental Rotation Test” and “Surface Development Test”. Descriptive statistics, MANOVA and ANOVA were used to analyze the data. The second stage was designed as a case study. “Opinion Form for Spatial Ability Tests” was used to elicit the views of 37 prospective teachers (F:20, M:17) identified via the purposive sampling method. The qualitative data obtained were analyzed using the content analysis technique. The study results showed that spatial visualization and mental rotation abilities of the prospective teachers were low; male prospective teachers were betterqualified than female ones in mental rotation but spatial visualization ability did not vary by gender. Moreover, prospective teachers with higher academic averages had better spatial abilities. Integrating virtual environment applications such as Google Earth etc. into social studies courses and using them in these courses can help to improve prospective teachers’ spatial abilities.

Performance differences in spatial abilities as a function of gender may be modified by practice and relevant background experiences, as well as by directions given in laboratory situations. We examined whether a focus on speed or accuracy influenced performance in various spatial domains, using several different scoring techniques. Men and women from a small, predominantly White private college completed tasks of spatial perception, spatial visualization, and mental rotation under one of three conditions: speed-emphasis, accuracy-emphasis, or control. Participants also provided information concerning experiences pertinent to spatial ability. Results revealed relative parity between men and women on tasks of spatial visualization and spatial perception; speed/accuracy orientation did not alter these findings. Men outperformed women on mental rotation, but only when scored in a strict manner and when explicitly told to focus on accuracy, but not when directional emphasis was absent or geared toward speed. Self-reported background in math, sports, and the arts was unrelated to performance. The results are discussed in terms of women's efficacy beliefs about performing tasks explicitly designated as spatial in nature.

Passing the introductory calculus sequence is critical to undergraduate students’ retention in STEM programs. This study examines the relations between three interrelated processes found to influence mathematics learning and achievement: spatial skills, spatial anxiety, and math anxiety. Additionally, it examines the role of gender on these relations and if and how they help explain precalculus achievement. Findings revealed that spatial skills, spatial anxiety, and gender were linked to math anxiety. Furthermore, spatial anxiety and math anxiety were related to strong final exam performance, but spatial skills and gender were not related to achievement. The presented evidence is in accordance with prior research and corroborates the existence of these relational patterns in a postsecondary academic context in addition to the laboratory context. These findings have broad implications for the development and implementation of efforts aimed at improving postsecondary mathematics outcomes, and subsequent persistence, retention, and representation in STEM programs.

Failure to Confirm a Spatial Ability Impairment in Persons with Evidence of Right Hemisphere Speech Capability

Purpose This study aims to investigate the differences in spatial ability between students with a math learning disability and their normal peers. Design/methodology/approach To investigate these differences two groups, (60 students with a math learning disability) and (60 normal students) from fifth grade with a mean age (10.6 years) were administered with spatial ability test along with an IQ test. Students with a math learning disability were chosen using measures of the following: math learning disability questionnaire developed from learning disability evaluation scale – renormed second edition (LDES-R2) (McCarney and Arthaud, 2007) and the Quick Neurological Screening Test (Mutti et al., 2012), in addition to their marks in formal math tests in school. Findings Comparison between the two groups in four aspects of spatial ability resulted in obvious differences in each aspect of spatial ability (spatial relations, mental rotation, spatial visualization and spatial orientation); these differences were clear, especially in mental rotation and spatial visualization. Originality/value This paper contributes to gain more insights into the characteristics of pupils with a math learning disability, the nature of spatial abilities and its effect on a math learning disability. Moreover, the results suggest spatial ability to be an important diagnose factor to distinguish and identify students with a math learning disability, and that spatial ability is strongly relevant to math achievement. The results have significant implications for success in the science, technology, engineering and mathematics domain.

Literature on mental rotation tasks consistently reports that males perform better than females. The current study is an attempt to scrutinize the influence of culture and experience with spatial activities in performance on a mental rotation test. The participants were 115 Ecuadorians, 120 Irish Caucasians and 128 Japanese. Half the participants in each group were male and half were female. They completed the Group Mental Rotation Test (GMRT) and a Spatial Activities Questionnaire (SAQ). Males outperformed females on the GMRT in all three cultures. Participation in “masculine activities” from the SAQ correlated with high GMRT scores, in “feminine activities” with low GMRT scores. There was a main effect of nationality; subjects from Ireland and Japan scored higher than their counterparts in Ecuador. The implications of the nationality effect raises questions about the widely accepted stability of the gender difference in spatial ability.