Exploring Historical Maritime Cyber-Attacks and Introducing Maritime Security Operations Center as a Solution to Mitigate Them

In the maritime sector, the integration of radar systems, Automatic Identification System (AIS) and Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) through digital technologies enables several benefits to maritime operations, but also make ships prone to cyberattacks. In this context, this work investigates the feasibility of an attacker using a radar system or AIS as open door to remotely send commands to a cyber threat hosted on a ship, even if the ship’s systems are air gapped—i.e., are not connected to other networks. The received commands are intended to trigger a cyber threat located in the ship. Although the literature covers several analyzes on cyber risks and vulnerabilities in naval systems, it lacks exploiting mechanisms capable of acknowledging attack commands received through radar and AIS. To this end, this work proposes a triggering mechanism that uses a template matching technique to detect specific patterns transmitted by the attacker to the ship’s radar or AIS. The results show the effectiveness of the proposed technique as a tool to acknowledge the received attack commands and activate a malicious code previously installed on the ship. In the case of attacks on a radar system, the accuracy achieved by the proposed method is 0.90. In the case of attacks on an AIS/ECDIS setup it presents an accuracy of 0.93. In both cases the proposed mechanism maintains the due safety against accidental attack activations.

With the goal of improving the real-time automatic generation of water routes and obtaining the optimal water routes, the study is based on automatic identification system (AIS) big data and electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS) water route automatic generation. The parallel AIS data processing technology of the distributed storage system is selected to realize the AIS big data processing that is automatically generated by the water route, the geodetic coordinates of the AIS information after the big data processing are transformed to Mercator projection, and the obtained Mercator coordinates are converted to the latitude and longitude of the sampling point to obtain the final sampling point. The Douglas-Peucker algorithm is selected to compress the sampling points and select the turning points from the compressed sampling points according to the fixed threshold set. The connection of the obtained turning points is the automatically generated initial water route. The ECDIS electronic chart is used to detect the generated route, and the final feasible route is the generated final water route. The experimental results show that the automatically generated water route mileage of this method is shorter, and the automatic generation time is within 300 ms, which has higher water route generation efficiency.

AIS (automatic identification system), a new type of marine equipment, together with radar, are all the key navaid for a ship to navigate. Now in the seafaring, it is one of the most attentive research issues how to adequately and effectively use their information to improve the sail safety. The paper developed the integrated target information system based on ECDIS (electronic chart display and information system), using Microsoft SQL 2000. It can display not only the target information of the radar and AIS on the sea, but also the underwater information including the depth of water and navigational marks. There are many functions on the system including data management, sea routine plan and so on. The results of the field test showed that it has a good interface. It is intuitionistic and convenient for a deck officer to watch and identify the offshore targets around, so as to judge if collision danger correctly. It contributes to not only promote the safety of navigation, but also offer a valuable platform of the research and experimentation in the target information processing such as fusion.

In Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) handling, Officers Of Watch (OOW) are experiencing several problems which have been identified and defined so far, with varieties in their causes and nature. Issues related to education, training and (lack of) knowledge can be singled out as factors directly and indirectly associated to a number of consequent difficulties and unwanted situations. The proposed paper deals with training of seafarers as end-users of the ECDIS system, trying to present them as central subjects in the ECDIS system of stakeholders. Within the research and (using results from) the corresponding survey, opinions of OOWs are considered and discussed regarding sufficiency of stipulated hours and recommended means for the completion of the Generic ECDIS training. Respondents’ profile was layered in several categories, all of which were elaborated considering survey questions. Certain features are presented regarding skills and knowledge prerequisites for which is understood that are already adopted by course attendees, which in turn opens new questions and potential issues. On the basis of the study, actually being part of larger ECDIS research, and derived inferences, possible solutions and indicative guidelines are suggested, focusing on ECDIS education and training issues and appearances. Improvement of the education-al and training process is further discussed. Planned activities are presented as inevitable tasks which have been formed based on previous and proposed research.

During the past three decades, the Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) evolved from its initial purpose to a complex navigation support tool. The transition from paper to electronic charts represents a substantial step in navigation, contributing to the reduction of the navigator’s workload, ease of execution of navigational tasks and integrated information and data fusion. In the system handling, Masters and Officers of the Watch (OOWs) are experiencing various issues ranging in their nature. The proposed paper represents a segment of a systematically carried out research among ECDIS stakeholders. The aim of the ECDIS EHO (Experience, Handling and Opinion) research is the development of an educational framework and the improvement of the Maritime Education and Training (MET) processes. This is to be achieved through a specific approach, proper communication and subtle educational, practical and research activities that have developed through time and research segments accomplishment, always striving at the user-centred, often neglected issues and their solving. The research methodology has been described in the respective chapter, together with the questionnaire which represents one of the main research tools. This segment of the research refers to opinions and attitudes of Masters and OOWs towards ECDIS mandatory implementation period completion, as collected from the ECDIS EHO questionnaire. The answers to the questions regarding the system role as a justified replacement of paper charts and the features of the means of navigation when compared with another have been categorised and discussed. Individual knowledge has been examined concerning new technology perception and understanding of the ECDIS system. The analyses and answers processing and accompanying comments have revealed certain illogicalities referring to the acceptance of the system as a mandatory, primary and often only, means of navigation. The level of acceptance and opinions regarding two means of navigation features have differed among respondents, irrespectively of their seagoing experience, navigational rank, ECDIS experience and the level of education. The analyses have revealed the need for the adaptation of ECDIS Education and Training to a particular navigational rank regarding engagement with the system. A new approach of the targeting methodology has been introduced and conducted. Critical groups of respondents have been identified and elaborated further. The research has resulted in the organisation of a new ECDIS MET course at the Faculty of Maritime Studies of the University of Rijeka. Considering the obtained results and the ongoing system development, findings and solutions have been presented in the conclusion chapter, together with the means of their achievements and the further work.

The global maritime digitalization reflects on navigation and paperless vessels with Paper Navigational Charts (PNC) nowadays superseded by Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS). Considering the system implementation and its acceptance as a sole navigational means, opinions of navigators differ. Although the ECDIS mandatory implementation ended in 2018, some navigators have been still favouring PNCs, pointing out their advantages over ECDIS navigation. These standpoints may have an impact on the safety of navigation in terms of acceptance, interpretation, and understanding of the system as well as on conflict of standpoints of decisive navigational ranks, the latter reason being found as one of the real problems. The presented study has focused on a specific period, soon after the transitional period completion, aiming to determine the views of traditional navigation advocates, their arguments in the present maritime navigation paperless era and to identify potential problems emerging from the conflict of two navigational means. The research has induced two independent, internationally distributed questionnaires, dedicated to navigational ranks. The first survey has referred to the period from 2012 to 2018, marking the transition to ECDIS navigation. The second survey was conducted after the implementation period completion date. The answers were analysed and discussed from the navigational ranks’ perspective, considering their competitiveness and the level of ECDIS education. The research results have indicated and confirmed that PNCs could not entirely be ruled out, at least at this stage. Besides definitive questionnaire answers, the findings have been supported with categorised comments as interpreted from the first survey questionnaire results. The paper aims to present the future of the PNCs, including possibilities of fusion with modern means. The proposed suggestions have been directed towards the benefits of maritime navigation safety, referring especially to disagreement between navigational ranks in terms of particular means acceptance.

This article presents technology for the production of electronic navigational charts (ENC) in the Hydrographie Institute of the Republic of Croatia (HIRC); current conditions of producing ENC cells and comparison with international experiences. ENC database together with GPS and onboard sensors make up -electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS) navigational GIS. The purpose of ENC and ECDIS is improvement of navigational safety and protection of marine environment. HIRC is participant of the international pilot project "North Adriatic virtual regional electronic nautical chart" (VRENC), deals with standardization in production and distribution of ENCs covering the area of the North Adriatic Sea. In international relations HIRC has a rather satisfying ENC production

Electronic navigational charts (ENCs) are geospatial databases, compiled for the operational use of Electronic Chart Display and Information systems (ECDIS) according to strict technical specifications of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). ECDIS is a GIS system designed for marine navigation according to the relevant standards of the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The international standards for ENCs and ECDIS, issued by the IHO and IMO, cover many aspects of the portrayal of ENCs in ECDIS but do not specify or recommend map projections. Consequently, in some cases, the unjustified employment of map projections by the manufacturers has caused certain functional drawbacks and inadequacies. This article reviews, evaluates and supplements the results of earlier studies on the selection of map projections for the depiction of ENCs in ECDIS and proposes a reasonable set of suitable projections with pertinent selection/implementation rules. These proposals took into consideration that ECDIS users (navigators) are not GIS experts or professional cartographers and consequently, the proposed election/implementation rules have to be simple and straightforward.

A quantitative complexity theory of human–computer interaction is presented and validated by means of laboratory experiments. Based on the seminal work of Grassberger in theoretical physics, a complexity measure is introduced. The measure is termed the Effective Measure Complexity and has three main advantages. First, it relies solely on information-theoretic quantities, which are intimately connected with the concept of complexity and not randomness. Second, it is model independent and can be estimated efficiently from data. Third, the estimates can be derived from behavioural patterns in terms of observable interaction events alone. Subjective ratings or psychophysiological measurements can be included but are not mandatory. In order to explain the theory, a simple and easy to generalise example in mobile human–computer interaction is presented. Furthermore, the external validity of the complexity measure is studied in laboratory experiments. The experimental task was to search for multiple targets on an electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS). ECDIS is an integral component of modern ship bridge concepts and therefore the experiments were carried out in a marine simulator. Thirty users participated. The platform motion (with or without motion) and the workplace illumination (800 lux or 30 lux) were varied systematically and the complexity effects were studied. The results show that the complexity of the visual search processes is significantly lower when the simulator is put in sea state characteristics and the users are facing straining motion forces. In addition, interaction complexity is significantly lowered when illuminance is reduced from the daylight level of 800 lux to the twilight level of 30 lux. Therefore, the complexity measure seems to be a valid for the quantitative assessment of human–computer interaction.

One of the principal causes of major oil pollution incidents is shipwreck caused by navigational error. This paper deals with the prevention of such errors through the use of a new technology – The Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS).ECDIS combines a digital chart display with a satellite based ship’s position, and presents the navigator with a precise, real-time picture of his ship’s position and intended movements in relation to the surrounding hazards to navigation, thus removing many of the causes of error in the navigational equation.This paper describes the development of international and national policy in regard to this technology, and provides a status report on the ECDIS project of the Australian Hydrographic Service.

This paper explores the impact of the Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) on the safety of navigation and seafarers’ professional practices. As ECDIS has become the primary tool for navigation, its proper use is critical for ensuring safe maritime operations. Drawing on data from a questionnaire completed by 154 active seafarers, this research investigates how ECDIS influences situational awareness, the use and management of safety settings, training adequacy, and system-related challenges. The findings reveal that while most respondents recognise ECDIS as a tool that enhances navigational safety, significant concerns remain regarding human error, insufficient training, and inconsistent application of safety settings such as the safety contour. Additionally, steering errors during restricted water manoeuvres and system crashes emerged as recurrent safety concerns. The study highlights the need for improved standardisation, targeted training, and more effective integration of human and technological elements to ensure optimal ECDIS use. The results offer actionable insights for enhancing ECDIS implementation and maritime safety standards.

Digital technology introduced a lot of benefits in the shipping industry but the relation between the equipment and the operator remains paramount and essential. Ship’s Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS), being recently a cornerstone for navigation, is not an exception. Not only scientific reviews and articles, but also marine officer’s opinion exchange, in other words, ashore and on board, point out that there is a gap, which should be addressed as soon as possible. Operation of the ECDIS by the human factor is essential for safe navigation. The shortage of training and knowledge always leads to near misses and incidents. The marine society, all over the world, has to take appropriate measures in order to “fill in the gaps” and keep the safer practices. These measures should be applied by the efforts of certain participants: the educational community, the shipowners, the manufacturers and the legal aspect, International Maritime Organization and Flag Administrations. All the mentioned parties may engage in a cooperative collaboration among themselves. The aim of this article is to research the main difficulties experienced on board by the ECDIS users and the way to rectify certain shortcomings related to the ECDIS.

The IMO have given their approval to the concept of an electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS) (IMO Assembly resolution A.817(19)) but the detailed technical specification required for Type Approval is still to be completed. Meanwhile, the approved 'vector data' required for ECDIS is only just beginning to be available and its form is still evolving. The Royal Navy is moving towards adoption of this new technology and has mandated its use for a future class of frigate. It is already involved in trials of prototype equipment, albeit using a (raster) data format which has yet to receive international approval. Trials supported by UK manufacturers and the UK Hydrographic Office are proving beneficial to all involved and vector data was incorporated during 1996. The need to strike a balance between adapting current navigation techniques to the electronic era and devising new ones has already been recognised, as is the inevitable impact on training. The ability to measure positions, bearings and distances far more accurately than ever before is putting the hydrographers on their mettle, while the need to understand and correctly apply datum shifts and match projections when displaying different forms of data is posing a new challenge for the navigator. The end of the paper chart in the RN may be forecastable but is not yet in sight and there are a number of questions that need to be resolved before ECDIS becomes accepted as the prime method of navigation.

An Integrated Bridge System (IBS) contains a fully duplicated Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS). Although duplication should increase system reliability, reliability and availability are not improved. Proper ECDIS maintenance includes updating both: the information system and the provided chart system. This procedure, in practice, tends to decrease reliability and availability. A Markov ECDIS simulation model is given. A new design concept is presented and proposed. The entire ECDIS system is improved by adding a cold standby system preventing the occurrence of errors due to updating and upgrading of the system device.

Bathymetric data quality on Electronic Navigational Charts (ENCs) is encoded with the Category Zone of Confidence (CATZOC) providing information about horizontal and vertical uncertainty, seabed coverage, and feature detection. To support safe navigation, the nautical charting community has been investigating improved methods for the inclusion of data quality on charts and the integration on Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (ECDISs). One of the major changes is the decision to replace the problematic star symbology. Recognizing that effective visualizations result in better–informed decisions, we investigate new techniques for the visualization of bathymetric data quality on ECDIS. This is expressed through our countable textures, one with lines and one with dot–clusters, as well as two techniques for improving the data quality integration within ECDIS safety checks. Regarding the former, this paper summarizes the research effort from identifying the deficiencies of star symbology, to conceptualization, development, and evaluation of the countable textures that demonstrated the superiority of the concept compared to ideas previously discussed within the community. Regarding the latter, this paper presents the two techniques under evaluation in collaboration with maritime academies in the US that aim to facilitate the use of data quality information during the execution of the passage.