Exploring the Relationship Between Learner Engagement and Language Achievement in Blended Learning Context

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between behavioral and emotional engagement of Iranian EFL learners and their attachment to their teachers. Both teachers’ and students’ perceptions of their relationships and students’ engagement have been taken into account. Questionnaire data provided by 311 EFL students and 70 EFL teachers was used to investigate the relation between (a) teacher-student attachment and EFL learners’ engagement, (b) teacher-student secure attachment and EFL learners’ engagement, (c) teacher-student insecure attachment and EFL learners’ engagement, (d) teacher-student secure attachment and EFL learners’ behavioral engagement, (e) teacher-student insecure attachment and EFL learners’ behavioral engagement, (f) teacher-student secure attachment and EFL learners’ emotional engagement, and (g) teacher-student insecure attachment and EFL learners’ emotional engagement. The analysis of teachers and students’ questionnaire data showed that teacher-student attachment was correlated with learners’ engagement. The student participants reported that secure attachment positively affected behavioral and emotional engagement while insecure attachment had a negative effect. The teacher participants reported that attachment with students had weak and non-significant relationship with their students’ behavioral and emotional engagement. These findings and their major pedagogical implications are discussed.

ABSTRACTArtificial intelligence (AI) is transforming L2 education, yet its specific impacts on English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers and language learners' engagement remain understudied. To address this deficiency, this study, grounded in Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris's (Review of Educational Research, 74, 109) three‐dimensional engagement model, explored the impacts of AI on the behavioural, cognitive and emotional engagement of EFL teachers and language learners through semi‐structured interviews with 24 EFL teachers and 38 college language learners, followed by a thematic analysis with MAXQDA to uncover the effectiveness of AI. The study found that behavioural engagement showcased the integration of AI tools, highlighting increased frequency of use and their practical applications in enhancing language acquisition tasks. Cognitive engagement was marked by the recognition of AI capacity to augment teaching strategies and learning processes, although it also surfaced concerns about the potential overreliance on technology. Emotional engagement reflected a complex interplay of attitudes, with most informants viewing AI positively but acknowledging concerns about job displacement, and its impacts on emotions of students and teachers as well as the relations between them. The study concluded that while AI held promise for L2 education, the integration must consider its limitations and ethical implications. The research provided valuable insights for educators, learners, technology developers and policymakers, encouraging innovative practices and informed decision‐making in L2 education.

The construct of task engagement, or engagement towards a specific activity or task, has been foregrounded as a significant element of student learning in second language (L2) education. Considered as motivation in action, task engagement is so crucial for L2 learning that no learning is likely to take place without it (Hiver et al. 2021. “Engagement in Language Learning: A Systematic Review of 20 Years of Research Methods and Definitions.” Language Teaching Research 28: 201–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211001289). Nonetheless, its underlying components and measurement have received scant attention in L2 research. To address this gap, our study intended to design and validate a comprehensive questionnaire that assesses learners’ task engagement in English as a foreign language (EFL) learning situations. The data were gathered from 481 undergraduate EFL learners. The results of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (EFA and CFA) demonstrated a five-factor model of task engagement with 25 reliable and valid items. The five extracted factors included emotional, agentic, behavioural, social, and cognitive engagement. The results may inform L2 teachers, students, materials developers, and researchers of the criticality of task engagement in academic performance and success rate of EFL learners. Future research directions in this line of inquiry are also presented to avid researchers.

The COVID-19 pandemic had forced medical students to study at home, transitioning to an emergency remote learning mode of instruction. Its impact on students was unknown and likely to be of concern. Therefore, this study assessed cognitive, emotional and behavioural engagements of medical students during emergency remote learning, and examined its associations with regard to their age, gender, stages of study and ethnic groups. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to undergraduate medical students at one public medical school in Malaysia. Emergency remote learning was conducted via Microsoft Teams (synchronous) and web resources (asynchronous). The questionnaire consisted of four sections: demographic background, emotional, behavioural, and cognitive engagements with emergency remote learning. Three hundred twenty-nine students (n = 329) completed the questionnaire. The three engagement dimension scores were 3.36/4.00 (behaviour – act), 3.16 (cognition – think) and 3.07 (emotion – feel), respectively. There was a significant difference between the engagement dimension scores (paired data), implying that what students feel, think and act on emergency remote learning did not seem to align. Next, engagements of these students were not significantly associated with their age, stages of study, and ethnic groups, but male students had higher dimension mean scores for cognitive and emotional engagements. Emergency remote learning had a considerable impact on student engagements. The study calls for continuing efforts in improving effectiveness and equity in learning engagements among medical students in the post-pandemic era.

Boarding school students must participate in online learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Student engagement is an important aspect that must be considered in online learning. This study aims to determine: (1) the level of student engagement of boarding school students, (2) to investigate the effect of simultaneous behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement on learning achievement, and (3) to determine the relationship between behavioral, emotional and cognitive engagement with learning achievement, (4) to measure the relative and effective contribution of behavioral, emotional and cognitive engagement on learning achievement. This research is quantitative research with an ex post facto type. 182 boarding school students participated in this study. The data collection instrument used is the engagement scale from Fredricks & McCloskey. Data processing using descriptive and inferential statistics. The inferential test used is multiple linear regression and Pearson correlation. This study’s results indicate a significant influence between behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement on the learning achievement. The influence of these three variables on learning achievement is 46.7%. While the results of the correlation test showed that there is a significant relationship between the variables of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement in learning achievement.

Research on learners’ commitment to English language learning in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) around the world is predominantly characterized by a positivist and quantitative approach. Conventionally, this type of studies uses the psychological construct ‘motivation’ to account for learners’ efforts in language learning practices. Such paradigmatic orientation constituted a knowledge gap on the role of society, structural inequality, and uneven distribution of resources in English language learning. To address this gap, with a poststructuralist approach, this paper reports on an in-depth narrative case study of an underprivileged learner’s engagement in English language learning in Bangladesh through Darvin and Norton's (Ann Rev Appl Linguist 35: 36–56, 2015) expanded model of ‘investment’, a sociological counterpart of the psychological theory of ‘motivation’. Data for the study were collected over a two-year period through narrative interviews, a written autobiography, and informal conversations. The collected data were analyzed deductively following Polkinghorne's (Int J Qual Stud Educ 8: 5–23 1995) ‘analysis of narrative’ approach in connection with the expanded model of ‘investment’ which focuses on identity, ideology, and capital. In particular, findings demonstrate that (a) imagined identity and group membership influence commitment to language learning; (b) ideologies embedded in language education policy, linguistic gatekeeping, and methodologies of English language teaching configure language learning practices; and (c) the fluid nature of the three forms of capital (i.e., economic, social, and cultural) enables the participant to engage in learning English. The findings of this study have implications for language educators and second language acquisition (SLA) researchers.

This study investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and engagement in English as a foreign language (EFL) learning among 362 Saudi adult learners. Data were collected using the Emotional Intelligence in Language Learning Questionnaire (EILLQ) and the Language Learning Engagement Questionnaire (LLEQ), which were specifically developed for this study, along with semi-structured interviews and learners’ reflective journals. The findings revealed that the learners exhibited moderate to high levels of EI across all its five components, with motivation receiving the highest mean score, followed by self-awareness and social skills. Self-regulation and empathy also showed moderate levels, suggesting a well-rounded emotional foundation among the learners. Similarly, the participants displayed moderate to high levels of engagement across behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimensions, with mean scores that reflected a balanced engagement profile. Additionally, the study found a strong positive correlation between EI and engagement in EFL learning. Both EI and engagement significantly impacted English language proficiency, with engagement showing a slightly stronger influence. These findings highlight the critical role of EI in enhancing learner engagement and language proficiency, which suggests that educational strategies focused on developing EI could significantly improve EFL learning experiences and outcomes.

This study examines the effectiveness of gamified learning environments in improving grammar mastery and engagement among Jordanian secondary school EFL learners in Saudi Arabia. The research aims to explore the impact of gamification on learners' cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement while addressing the challenges faced in grammar instruction within this educational context. A quantitative experimental research design was employed, involving 120 students divided into an experimental group (exposed to a gamified grammar intervention) and a control group (taught using traditional methods). Data were collected through pre-tests, post-tests, and engagement questionnaires. Statistical analyses, including ANCOVA and effect size evaluation, were conducted to determine the impact of gamification on grammar proficiency and student engagement. The results indicate a significant improvement in grammar mastery among students in the gamified learning environment, with a 41.91% increase in proficiency compared to 13.41% in the control group. The experimental group also demonstrated higher scores in behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement, confirming that gamification enhances both learning outcomes and student motivation. Effect size analysis revealed a large impact of gamification on grammar achievement and engagement levels. This study provides empirical evidence supporting gamified learning as an effective strategy for enhancing grammar acquisition in EFL contexts. The findings highlight the role of gamification in fostering engagement and improving learner performance, suggesting that it can serve as a transformative approach in language education. The study offers valuable insights for educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers, emphasizing the need to integrate gamification into EFL instruction. By incorporating game-based elements, teachers can create a more engaging and effective learning environment, potentially improving long-term grammar retention and student motivation. Additionally, cultural considerations should be taken into account when implementing gamified learning to ensure its effectiveness across diverse educational settings.

Based on Ellis’s three-dimensional learner engagement framework, this study examined the learner engagement in multiple feedback of nine second language learners with different language proficiency through writing texts, retrospective interviews, and semi-structured interviews. It was found that (1) learners generally have a positive attitude towards multiple feedback; they experience positive emotions while negative emotions such as disappointment, doubtful, angry, guilty are also generated in the process of revision; learners tend to absorb more teacher feedback and more meaning-level feedback and they are relatively poor at self-regulated learning. (2) Language proficiency has an effect on learner engagement, with a more significant effect for lowerlevel learners. Learners with lower language proficiency tend to be opposed to multiple feedback and show lower behavioral and cognitive engagement. (3) There is a correlation between the three dimensions of learner feedback engagement: Affective engagement influences behavioral and cognitive engagement, and the behavioral engagement is inspired by learners’ cognitive engagement. This study provides insights into the implementation of multiple feedback and second language writing, which is beneficial to the cultivation of second language talents in the new era.

The present study aimed to examine whether and to what extent university student online learning performance was influenced by individual-technology fit (ITF), task-technology fit (TTF), environment-technology fit (ETF), and whether the influence was mediated by their behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. A theoretical research model was developed by integrating the extended TTF theory and student engagement framework. The validity of the model was assessed using a partial least squares structural equation modeling approach based on data collected from 810 university students. Student learning performance was influenced by TTF (β = 0.25, p < 0.001), behavioral engagement (β = 0.25, p < 0.001), and emotional engagement (β = 0.27, p < 0.001). Behavioral engagement was affected by TTF (β = 0.31, p < 0.001) and ITF (β = 0.41, p < 0.001). TTF, ITF, and ETF were observed as significant antecedents of emotional engagement (β = 0.49, p < 0.001; β = 0.19, p < 0.001; β = 0.12, p = 0.001, respectively) and cognitive engagement (β = 0.28, p < 0.001; β = 0.34, p < 0.001; β = 0.16, p < 0.001, respectively). Behavioral and emotional engagement served as mediators between fit variables and learning performance. We suggest the need for an extension to the TTF theory by introducing ITF and ETF dimensions and demonstrate the important role of these fit variables in facilitating student engagement and learning performance. Online education practitioners should carefully consider the fit between the individual, task, environment, and technology to facilitate student learning outcomes.

A Longitudinal Study of Learning Engagement of Math and Science Gifted Students in Junior and Senior High School

This study aims to explore the factors affecting students' learning performance in blended learning in nursing and vocational education. Emphasizing the human capacity for self-directed learning and behavior, this research investigates the impacts of learning motivation, behavioral engagement, cognitive engagement, emotional engagement, agentic engagement, and feedback on students' learning performance. The study aims to assess the current levels of these variables, design and implement intervention strategies (strategic plans) to enhance them, and determine any changes in these variables before and after the implementation of the strategic plan. The research design was a sequential exploratory mixed-methods design, combining qualitative and quantitative methods to develop an instrument for data collection. The target population consisted of nursing students from three public colleges in Shanghai, with a sample size of 1494 students. Preliminary findings revealed that the learning motivation, behavioral engagement, cognitive engagement, emotional engagement, agentic engagement, and feedback levels were generally low. A multiple regression analysis showed that learning motivation (p&lt;0.01), behavioral engagement (p&lt;0.01), cognitive engagement (p&lt;0.01), emotional engagement (p&lt;0.01), agentic engagement (p&lt;0.01), and feedback (p&lt;0.01) significantly predicted learning performance. Experts developed and validated a theoretical model based on the findings, laying the foundation for future interventions to enhance nursing students' learning performance.

After the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Applied Linguistics took a social turn and made the sociocultural perspective its primary point of investigation, SLA researchers became more interested in the link between identity (class, culture, race, gender, sexuality, etc.) and language learning. Hence, the present study aimed at identifying the impact of identity aspects on the Iranian learners' English language achievements of the students of Medicine at Yasuj University of Medical Sciences (YUMS). Likewise, the study attempted to find the impact of demographic factors on language achievement and aspects of identity among Iranian EFL learners. To fulfill the objectives and find answers to the posed questions, a questionnaire representing aspects of identity and consisting of 45 Likert items (personal: 10 items + social: 7 items + collective: 8 items + relational: 10 items + special: 10 items) was distributed among 76 language learners majoring in Medicine at YUMS. Both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were run on the data. The results demonstrated no significant relationship between language achievement and the aspects of identity. To be exact, the present paper revealed that none of the identity aspects was a predicting variable for language achievement in the Iranian academic context. Among the demographic factors, only gender could account for two aspects of identity, namely, personal and relational identities. Evidently, the results were local not universal.

Developing adequate English as a Foreign Language (EFL) academic writing skills is of paramount importance for students’ success in higher education in Oman. The traditional teaching approaches adopted in writing courses often lead to students’ disengagement, however. Although several studies have examined students and teachers’ perceptions of flipped instruction in various EFL courses, no study has examined the impact of flipping on students’ engagement in writing courses. This practice-based research project, where the instructor was the researcher, explored the impact of flipped teaching on 57 General Foundation Program (GFP) EFL learners’ behavioural, cognitive, emotional and agentic engagement in academic writing in a higher education institution in Oman, and the variations that exist in students’ engagement according to gender, age, English language proficiency and technology skills. The study adopted a mixed-methods design and used a student engagement questionnaire, focus group interviews and participant observations to collect data. Descriptive and inferential statistics and deductive and inductive analytical procedures were used to analyse the quantitative and qualitative data respectively. The study presents new practicable knowledge about the implementation and implications of flipped instruction for Omani EFL students’ engagement in academic writing at the GFP level. It proposes flipping as an instructional approach which helps to address GFP students’ lack of 4 behavioural, cognitive, emotional and agentic engagement in writing courses in the Omani context. Behaviourally, students in the flipped classroom experience increased effort, improved concentration levels, persistence, communication and collaboration, and amelioration in their attitude to class attendance. It is reasonable to conclude that learners undergo cognitive growth and develop self-regulatory strategies and meta-cognitive awareness. At the level of emotional engagement, learners initially experience negative emotions such as anger and frustration, and then more positive emotions such as contentment and increased interest in the subject as they adapt to the flipped teaching-learning model. Flipping also seems to influence students’ autonomy and ability to ask questions and express opinions. It appears, however, that this approach does not influence students’ capacity to contribute to their own learning resources and activities. This study makes a valuable contribution to knowledge about students’ engagement in EFL writing courses. It revealed that a strong positive correlation exists between students’ behavioural, cognitive and emotional engagement, and that a positive correlation exists between students’ technology skills and linguistic proficiency and several aspects of their engagement. The study demonstrated, however, that no correlation exists between gender and age and students’ engagement in the flipped classroom. Furthermore, this practice-based research indicated that although flipped instruction helps to address the problem of students’ disengagement in writing courses in our context, factors such as students’ linguistic proficiency and technology skills should be taken into consideration before implementing this instructional approach in the current setting.

This study was designed to explore the relationship between teacher practices and levels of student engagement in secondary agricultural education programs. Most researchers have agreed that student engagement at the secondary level may be measured through three constructs: cognitive engagement, behavioral engagement, and emotional engagement. The intra-curricular components, namely the FFA organization and Supervised Agricultural Experience Program, make secondary agricultural education unique when compared to the foundational classes of math, science, and English. Respondents included a total of 152 agricultural education programs, which were randomly selected within 11 states to participate in the study. One class in each program was surveyed, which totaled 2,106 student respondents. Relationships were identified between specific teaching and advising practices performed by the secondary agricultural educator and their students’ level of engagement in classroom, FFA, and SAE activities. Each state is encouraged to replicate this study to determine student engagement levels in classroom, FFA and SAE activities, and then identify the causes and conditions leading to higher and lower levels of student engagement.