Eye-tracking detection of the area of interest in data visualization

Introduction. In the late XIX – early XX centuries Russian business is getting rid of a number of restrictions, due to which the business environment is becoming more and more democratic. The estate determination of entrepreneurial rights and opportunities gradually receded into the past, paving the way for business to the lowest social and legal classes. In this work, an attempt will be made to study the entrepreneurial activity of the Russian peasantry in the late XIX – early XX centuries, which gradually went to new frontiers, overcoming the level of small-scale production and integrating into large business. The main aspect of the study of the selected object of study is associated with the identification of the influence of the remaining class restrictions on the implementation of entrepreneurial aspirations of peasants in the provinces of the Middle Volga region (Kazan, Samara, Saratov, Simbirsk and Penza). Methods. To solve the problems posed, elements of several techniques were used, thanks to which the object of study was studied from the perspective of the influence of endogenous and exogenous factors. In the work, the historical-legal method has been applied, which allowed peasant entrepreneurship to be examined through the prism of the evolution of legislation related to the determination of the socio-economic format of the life of the population in the conditions of the remaining estate system. The use of modernization theory made it possible to integrate the processes under study into the trend of industrial modernization, considering peasant entrepreneurship as its subprocess. Results. The solution of the tasks was carried out on the basis of specific forms of entrepreneurial activity of peasants in the so-called. “Qualifying” industry, which included only enterprises supervised by factory inspections and having reached a certain level of industrial “maturity”. To obtain the actual material, which became the basis for theoretical generalizations, the forms and results of entrepreneurship of peasants in the indicated industry segment in a sectoral context were studied. In addition, a brief analysis of the socio-legal foundations of the development of Russian entrepreneurship was carried out in the prospect of overcoming the class restrictions of peasants in the implementation of their commercial and business aspirations. Discussion and Conclusion. The above examples convincingly show that the peasantry almost on an equal footing with other classes participated in industrial production, which allows us to talk about the transition of the process of establishing freedom of enterprise in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century not only to the plane of legal declarations (de jure), but also to the plane their practical implementation (“de facto”). An analysis of the social composition of the Middle Volga industrialists at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, where the peasantry played a more significant role, shows that business success was already to a much lesser extent related to class privilege. Achieving very significant results in the industrial business, representatives of the rural class no longer showed such decisive aspirations in raising their social status. The process of erasing the class-legal differences in business is indirectly confirmed by the fact that industrial statistics of the beginning of the 20th century are increasingly starting to ignore the factor of class ownership of industrial enterprises.

Based on archival sources and published materials, the process of formation and development of forest education in the Russian Empire is shown, the reasons for creating primary forest schools in the Baikal region in the late XIX — early XX centuries are analyzed. The conclusion is made about the progressive experience of the activities of primary forest schools.

The aim of the study is to determine the role of the customary law of the Russian peasantry in the late XIX - early XX century in the formation of norms of marriage and family behaviour of the modern Russian population. As a result, it is shown that the norms of customary law that governed family and marriage relations of the Russian peasantry in the late XIX - early XX century have undergone a significant transformation in the everyday realias of the modern Russian population. Some of the traditional peasant views have gone through the path of wave-like changes, some have ensured complete continuity for themselves, and some have been replaced by a system of opposite norms.

Vasily Dimitrievich Dimitriev, who by his fundamental works inscribed his name in the cohort of outstanding scientists of the Volga-Urals, was a deeply national historian. With that said, it seems relevant to clarify his views on the relations and contacts of the Chuvash and the Russians in the second half of the XIX – early XX century. In the regional literature, this issue is addressed only in the most general terms. The purpose of the study is to provide a detailed historiographical analysis of the historian’s works on the outlined issues published by him during the Soviet period. Materials and methods. This publication analyzes the essay, the article and the brochure written by V.D. Dimitriev before 1991, which relatively fully reflected his position on the topic under consideration. The study was carried out on the basis of using the systematic, historical-comparative and historical-anthropological methods. Research results. V.D. Dimitriev devoted a number of works to the topic of Chuvash-Russian relations and contacts in the Soviet times, which differ significantly from each other in the form of material presentation. A panoramic picture of the relationship between representatives of two ethnic communities, appearing from the essay «Communication of the Chuvash with the Russians and the influence of the Russian culture on the Chuvash one in the late XIX – early XX centuries» (1968), is based on the testimonies and observations of the villagers. The essay is distinguished by its pronounced factual character. Based on reports from local correspondents, ethnographic essays and notes from contemporaries, in the context of individual localities, the author shows the contacts of Chuvash and Russian peasants in the Chuvash region at the turn of the XIX–XX centuries, qualifying them as friendly. At the same time, he identifies populated areas where ethnic partners were somewhat wary of each other. Strengthening of capitalist relations in the countryside, seasonal work, commercial and industrial activities of peasants, progress in the development of school education are considered in the publication as channels that stimulated assimilation of the Russian language by the Chuvash, the influence of Russian material and spiritual culture on the Chuvash way of life, economy and behavioral stereotype. In the article he wrote, «I.Ya. Yakovlev – a proponent of peoples rapprochement» (1969) the author’s analytical statements concerning contacts between the Chuvash and the Great Russians were reflected mainly indirectly, through the optics of analyzing the worldview and practical activities of the Chuvash teacher I.Ya. Yakovlev. The main socio-cultural components of Chuvash-Russian relations in the era of market relations are briefly shown in the brochure «Forever with the Russian people» (1976). Structurally, the material presented in it by the author serves as an information and analytical bridge connecting the realities of different historical eras into a single whole. Conclusions. The works written by V.D. Dimitriev in the Soviet time on the topic of Chuvash-Russian relations and contacts, which are not free from the ideology of the Soviet era, are executed in a classical manner and represent a methodologically verified, well-structured sample of a scientific product, which in its basic provisions continues to remain modern and in demand by the scientific audience today.

The subject of this research is the judicial practice of the volost courts of Barnaul district of the Tomsk governorate in the late XIX — early XX centuries. Minute books of the volost courts, which contained records on the claims, testimony of the parties and witnesses, and court decision, served as the main source for this research. Fine and comprehensive record management made allowed applying historical-systemic method, which revealed the mechanism of functionality of the volost courts. The use of content analysis allowed determining the priority of the questions under review, classifying debt enforcement by the types of undischarged obligations, reconstructing the level of legal consciousness of peasants, and assessing the effectiveness of the peasant self-governance. It is established that litigations on obligations default held second place among all cases in the volost courts, which indicates wide applicability of the practice of “seeking truth” not in the rural society, but the official institutions. Based on introduction of new sources into the scientific discourse, the author concludes the spread of debt enforcement is related not only to increase of currency circulation in everyday life of peasants, consolidation of the practice of estimation of things, and getting paid for work, but also with the crisis of trust-based relations within the rural community.

The article is devoted to thestudy of forms of advanced training of teachers in the Caucasus in the late XIX – early XXcenturies. Thestudy analyzes the vector of their changes from short-term courses to pedagogical congresses. When writing an article, historical-comprehensive and problem-chronological methods were used, which allowed to trace the dynamics of the development of forms of advanced training of teachers in the Caucasus in the late XIX-early XX centuries. A source analysis of archival documents and publications in periodicals was also used. The novelty of the work lies in the fact that on the material of the Caucasian training district an attempt was made to a comprehensive analysis of the evolution of the forms of advanced training of teachers in the second half of the XIX – early XX centuries. The author concludes that it was the combination of short-term courses and pedagogical congresses that ensured the transition from temporary measures to prepare personnel to a sustainable professional development system of teachers.

The authors examine the situation of the German community in St. Petersburg in the second half of the XIX - early XX century. The research is based on the published materials of the urban population censuses of 1869 and 1900 and the First General Census of Population of 1897 in St. Petersburg, as well as medical descriptions of commercial and industrial establishments of the capital. These office documents including petitions from artisans and other persons, correspondence between the bodies of city management and central departments, contracts for the execution of orders found in the central and regional archives of the Russian Federation. The research shows that in the 1860s and 1900s, the bulk of German citizens moved from the central parts of St. Petersburg to newly built areas of the city largely due to the economic reasons. In the industrial parts of the city, German women made up the majority of ethnic Germans. In the late XIX - early XX century, the German population continued to play an important role in the system of interethnic division of labor of city. They occupied dominant positions in education, medicine, and credit institutions. In addition, despite the rapid development of large-scale industry, artisans still played an important role in the urban economy and the Germans continue to make a significant impact.

This article is dedicated to the memory of Tamara Fedorovna Izmestyeva, a well-known specialist in the field of economic history and historical information science. A graduate of the Faculty of Economics of Moscow State University, she began her scientific and teaching work at the Faculty of History in 1969 at the Department of Source Studies, then as a researcher and senior researcher at the interdepartmental Laboratory of Historical Information Science, transformed into the Department of the same name. Tamara Fyodorovna's research interests lay in the mainstream of both economic history and historical information science. In 1991, the publishing house of Moscow State University published a monograph based on her dissertation "Russia in the European market system, late XIX – early XX century". T.F.Izmestyeva became one of the founders of the Association "History and Computer" (AIK), she was a member of the organizing committees of many AIK conferences, participated in the organization of schools for young scholars. The article uses publications by T.F. Izmestyeva in the journals "Russian History", "Economic History. Review", "Historical Information Scince", "AIK Newsletter", her presentations at Russian and international conferences, memoirs of colleagues and students. The article gives a high assessment of T.F. Izmestyeva's research and teaching work. Publications on economic history reflected her interests in the field of studying the foreign market of the Russian Empire, analyzing mass statistical sources. Tamara Fyodorovna introduced "economic tools" into research on economic history. In the field of historical information science, she paid much attention to the creation of historically oriented databases, source studies and methodological problems of working with mass statistical data. She has co-authored a number of textbooks, including "Quantitative Methods in Historical Research", "Historical Information Science", "Computerized Statistical Analysis for Historians", "Inforfmation Science for Humanities", "Information Technology for Historians".

The article is devoted to the foundation and development of agricultural education and agrarian knowledge among peasants who lived in the Baikal region at the beginning of the XX century. The Baikal region included the territories of Irkutsk province and Transbaikalian region. In the late XIX – early XX century some professional educational institutions as well as agricultural ones opened in Russian periphery. The archives play an important role in researching such an issue as an agricultural education in Baikal region. Archive documents including documents of management and record keeping, circular letters, requests, resolutions of central and local government allow one to form the historiography data base for this problem. Valuable sources of information include, among others, the agronomy organization report of Irkutsk province, volumes of Transbaikalian district agronomy councils, such periodicals as the Zabaikal’sky khozyain magazine and the Zabaikal’sky rabochy and the Irkutskie gubernskye vedomosty newspapers. Based on this historiography data, the article shows the district councils’ activity concerning the organization of the first basic agricultural schools in the Baikal region. The article features some difficulties the local government faced while organizing those establishments. The article also provides information about the wide spread propaganda of agrarian knowledge through the courses and lectures. First agricultural schools that were opened in the late XIX century and on the verge of the revolution of 1917 faced such problems as skilled labor shortage, lack of finance and pecuniary burdens. It was necessary to reorganize them into vocational educational schools. The article features a brief historiography review on the history of agricultural education in the late XIX – early XX centuries in Russia and in Baikal region specifically.

Purpose: The purpose of the study is a comprehensive analysis of the development of legal regulation of foreign business in Russia during late XIX - early XX centuries.Design/Methodology/Approach: The interest in the history of Russian business is connected with the need to understand its experience, to learn the true features of Russian business society and to strive for the revival of traditions.Findings: The problem of class and professional organization of business circles, the relationship of the business world with the government and the working class is studied. The work is a comprehensive study of the legal regulation of foreign business in the period of establishment of capitalist forms of management and industrialization of the Russian state during late XIX - early XX centuries.Originality/Value: According to the authors, the analysis and understanding of the legal regulation of forms of associations by foreign legislation in the XIX – early XX centuries will allow taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of the historical experience of legal regulation of business associations in general.KeywordsAssociation of enterprisesForeign entrepreneurshipIndustrializationCapitalist modernizationCorporate lawInternational lawJEL CodeK20K33

The article deals with little explored city libraries sobriety societies in late XIX - early XXth century. The powers certainly understand the need to struggle drunkenness, but for a long time for sobering up people almost did not take. Arrange reasonable entertainment and organize useful pastime tried sobriety societies, creating a network of free libraries.

Direct democracy appeared in the United States back in the colonial period. However, when the country became sovereign in the late XVIII century, the founding fathers gave preference to representative democracy in order to prevent the mob rule. This research traces the history of various institutions of direct democracy in the United States. The late XIX – early XX centuries saw an era of progressivism in the United States: civil society struggled against negative social, political, and legal phenomena. Implementation of referendums, general direct elections, recalls of officials, etc., into the legal system seemed a perfect solution. In the early XX century, these institutions were enshrined in the legislation of some Western states and proved rather effective. The so-called second wave of direct democracy occurred after 1950s, and institutions of direct democracy became even more widespread. This process reached its peak in the late XX – early XXI centuries. As a result, they predominate in the current US legislation. The USA are currently going through a further rise in direct democracy, which is even more implemented into the legal system. The American experience of direct democracy is of considerable interest to Russia as it may help to improve the domestic state mechanisms of making socially important decisions.

The subject of this research is determination of the network interaction on the background of growth of entrepreneurial activity in the area of beekeeping in Primorsky Krai during late XIX – early XX centuries, as well as the interconnection between expansion of economic impact in entrepreneurship and functionality of social networks.  The tasks of this study include identification and description of network structures, determination of the type of proximity on which they are based, and clarification of the specificity of the impact of network interaction upon development of beekeeping of Primorsky Krai of the late XIX – early XX centuries. Identification and description of network structures in this research is done using the tools of economic cartography, surveying, diachronic analysis, with reliance upon archival materials on inspection of peasant farms of Primorsky Krai in 1912. The scientific novelty of this research consists in revelation of the functionality of social networks in proliferation of new knowledge, economic practices and technologies. The work highlights two types of network structures, which depend on the type of proximity that underlies the interaction of economic agents. It is established that the development of beekeeping practice and entrepreneurship based on production of honey relates to the functionality of the network structures.

The purpose of this article is to learn the chronology of introduction in the musical-cultural way of life of Kharkiv of Western European and the Eastern European stringed instruments (zither, guitar, mandolin, balalaika, domra). The study of chronology is aimed at a more active introduction of the facts of use of string-plucked instruments in Kharkiv into the scientific circulation. The methodology for writing this article is the combination of comparative, cultural and historical, musicological approaches and methods. The result of scientific research of this article is demonstration of chronology of activities in Kharkiv of musicians-tourers, who were performers and teachers of play on the string-plucked instruments. The concert activity of amateur Kharkiv bands was analyzed. The mass implementation of ensembles and orchestras of guitarists — mandolinists — balalaika players in the early XX century is noted. Affinity of formation of such ensembles and orchestras in Kharkiv with Western European ensembles and orchestras is emphasized. The evolution of the development of amateur performance on string-plucked instruments in the largest cultural center of Slobozhanshchyna is traced. The number of names of musicians — tourers and local performers, teachers, heads of visiting professional and Kharkiv amateur groups of the late XIX and early XX centuries is entered into scientific circulation. The combination of Western European and local factors in the distribution and popularization of ensembles and orchestras of guitarists — mandolinists — balalaika players on the territory of Kharkiv was emphasized. Influence of Western European bands and tourers — performers on zither, guitar, mandolin on instillation and consolidation of local amateurs and, subsequently, the first professionals’ interest to the national folk string-plucked instruments is revealed. The increase in the popularity of string-plucked ensembles and orchestras among various social strata of Kharkiv society — apprenticeships, students, workers of various industries, Kharkiv intelligent environment is indicated. The mainly charitable activities of such string-plucked is emphasized. The repertoire of such groups is highlighted. The scientific novelty. For the first time, a chronology of the activities of touring musicians — performers on zither, guitar, mandolin and teachers playing these and similar instruments is traced. The concert activity of amateur Kharkiv bands was highlighted and analyzed according to chronology, the mass implementation of ensembles and orchestras of guitarists — mandolinists — balalaika players in the early XX century is noted. The affinity of principles in the compositions of such collectives in Kharkiv with Western European ones is defined. The practical significance of the article. The results of the study can be used in lecture courses on the history of folk instrumental performance, the history of the development of folk instruments in Slobozhanshchyna, the history of intercultural relations in the field of musical art.

The ideas of supporters of the sociological direction in criminal law and criminology on the causes of crime are considered; their significance for the present is determined.
 It is stated that crime has existed at all times and has changed in different eras and in different countries under the influence of the circumstances of a particular society. The sociological direction in criminal law and criminology was formed in the late XIX – early XX centuries. The outstanding theorists of the sociological direction were A.J. Kettle, A. Lacassan, F. Liszt, E. Durkheim, P.O. Sorokin, M.P. Chubynskii, E.Kh. Sutherland, D. Cressy, G. Van Hamel, A. Prince, R.K. Merton, T. Sellin and others.
 The basic provisions on the dependence of crime on the conditions of the social environment, the stability of the basic parameters of crime and the possibility of its prediction were formulated by representatives of the sociological school. It has been proven that it would be futile to try to influence crime without changing the social conditions that give rise to crime. However, sociological theories do not explain why different people exhibit fundamentally different behaviors under the same social conditions.
 The determinants of crime are mainly related to society itself, to its acute contradictions, to social injustice and social inequality, which are insurmountable in the current social space. Some contradictions are historically overcome or minimized, but new criminologically significant antagonisms are emerging that determine crime.
 It is argued that a synthetic approach based on a combination of different methodologies and allows the consideration of all known crime factors in interrelation and interaction can be the methodological basis for crime research.
 Today the main initial positions of the sociological direction, its philosophical and sociological bases are preserved in criminology: positivism in its various versions; recognition of social and individual factors in a series of actions; the concept of crime as an eternal phenomenon inherent in any social system.