Feature Extraction Method GLCM and LVQ in Digital Image-Based Face Recognition

This study aims to develop an AI-based diagnostic tool for classifying dental conditions and tooth types to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of dental diagnostics. Manual documentation and diagnosis in dentistry are often prone to errors, inefficiencies, and delays, leading to adverse patient outcomes. Leveraging digital image processing and machine learning, this research addresses these challenges by automating the classification process. Dental imaging data were collected from the Dental and Mouth Hospital (RSGM) of Nala Husada Surabaya, Indonesia, comprising 3,910 images categorized into dental conditions (1,767 images) and tooth types (2,143 images). The dataset was preprocessed through resizing, grayscale conversion, histogram equalization, and median filtering. Texture features were extracted using the Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM), and classification was performed using Support Vector Machine (SVM), K-Nearest Neighbor, Naïve Bayes, Decision Tree, and Random Forest algorithms. The SVM algorithm achieved the highest accuracy of 54.24% for dental conditions and 41.49% for tooth types, outperforming other methods. However, the overall performance was suboptimal, primarily due to dataset limitations, reliance on GLCM for feature extraction, and insufficient preprocessing. The results highlight the potential of AI-based tools in dentistry but also underscore the need for improvements in dataset diversity, advanced feature extraction methods, and hyperparameter optimization. Future research should focus on expanding the dataset, exploring deep learning-based feature extraction, and employing robust evaluation strategies to enhance model performance. This study lays the groundwork for developing a more reliable and efficient AI-based diagnostic tool, ultimately improving patient outcomes and streamlining clinical workflows in dentistry.

Breast cancer is one of the main causes of death in women and ranks first in cancer cases in Indonesia. Therefore, an early detection and prevention of breast cancer is necessary, one of which is through mammography procedures. A machine learning classifier such as Support Vector Machines (SVM) could be used as an aid to the doctors and radiologist in diagnosing breast cancer from the mammogram images. The aim of this paper is to compare two feature extraction methods used in SVM, namely the Gray Level Co-Occurrence Matrix (GLCM) and first order with two kernels for each method, namely Gaussian and Polynomial. Classification using SVM method is carried out by testing several parameters such as the value of C, gamma, degree and varying the pixel spacing values ​​in GLCM, which usually in previous studies only used the default pixel spacing. The dataset consists of 500 mammogram images containing 250 benign and malignant images, respectively. This study is expected to find out the best method with the highest accuracy between these two texture feature extractions and and able to distinguish between benign and malignant classes correctly. The result achieved that Gray Level Co-Occurrence Matrix (GLCM) feature extraction method with both Gaussian and Polynomial kernel yields the best performance with an accuracy of 89%.

Research on the Identification of Stroke with MRI Imagery Using the Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ) Method Based on Texture Features has been carried out. This study aims to determine the program's best parameters and the highest accuracy level of the stroke identification program. This research was conducted at Haji Sukolilo Hospital - Surabaya by obtaining 57 images of stroke patients and 15 images of regular patients. The study used the intelligence of stroke, tumor, and standard images to determine each category's image characteristics. After knowing the differences in each class, the next process is digital image processing, followed by feature extraction used is the Gray-Level Co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) with four parameters: contrast, correlation, diversity, and homogeneity. These four parameters are the best input parameters with an intelligence rate of 0.100 with a decrease in intelligence rate of 0.100, so the best accuracy value for training is 74.97%, and test data is 78.60%. Regarding the program's ability to correctly identify 11 data from 14 data tested, the program is feasible to be used as a second opinion.

For the pattern classification problems the neuro-pattern recognition which is the pattern recognition based on the neural network approach has been paid an attention since it can classify various patterns like human beings. In this paper, we adopt the learning vector quantization (LVQ) method to classify the various kinds of money. The reasons to use the LVQ are that it can process the unsupervised classification and treat many input data with small computational burdens. We will construct the LVQ network to classify the Italian liras. Compared with a conventional pattern matching technique, which has been adopted as a classification method, the proposed method has shown excellent classification results.

COVID-19 is a disease or virus that has recently spread worldwide. The disease has also taken many casualties because the virus is notoriously deadly. An examination can be carried out using a chest X-Ray because it costs cheaper compared to swab and PCR tests. The data used in this study was chest X-Ray image data. Chest X-Ray images can be identified using Computer-Aided Diagnosis by utilizing machine learning classification. The first step was the preprocessing stage and feature extraction using the Gray Level Co-Occurrence Matrix (GLCM). The result of the feature extraction was then used at the classification stage. The classification process used was Extreme Learning Machine (ELM). Extreme Learning Machine (ELM) is one of the artificial neural networks with advanced feedforward which has one hidden layer called Single Hidden Layer Feedforward Neural Networks (SLFNs). The results obtained by GLCM feature extraction and classification using ELM achieved the best accuracy of 91.21%, the sensitivity of 100%, and the specificity of 91% at 135° rotation using linear activation function with 15 hidden nodes.

A bill money classification has become automated and it is important that the classifier has higher accuracy. Generally, the accuracy of classification is represented as the recognition rate of sample data. However, when classifying bill money, we must evaluate the accuracy more strictly. For pattern recognition a neural network (NN) is studied and its ability is highly estimated. Among NNs a competitive NN has a simple structure and can be analyzed by the relation between the inputs and the outputs more easily than a layered NN based on the backpropagation method. Because of this, we use a competitive NN for bill money classification and use the learning vector quantization (LVQ) method for training the NN. We propose a reliability criterion based on a probability distribution for the classification by the LVQ method. Then we classify US dollars by the LVQ and apply the reliability criterion to the classification. We show that the proposed method of bill money classification has higher accuracy.

This study used the second-order Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM) and pearl image classification using the Artificial Neural Network (ANN). No previous research combines the GLCM method with artificial neural networks in pearl image classification. The number of images used in this study is 360 images with three labels, including 120 A images, 120 AA images, and 120 AAA images. The epochs used in this study were 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80. The test results at epoch 10 got 80.00% accuracy, epoch 20 got 90.00% accuracy, epoch 30 got 93.33% accuracy, and epoch 40 got 94.44% accuracy. In comparison, epoch 50 got 95.55% accuracy, epoch 60 got 96.66% accuracy, epoch 70 got 96.66% accuracy, and epoch 80 got 95.55% accuracy. The combination of the proposed methods can produce accuracy in classifying pearl images, such as the classification test results.

The Research aimst to compare backpropagation and Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ) methods in exploring the potential of new students at STMIK PalComTech. Comparisons in this study involve four input variables used which consist of four basic subjects of informatics engineering and information systems (math, basic programming, computer networks and management bases) which then make informatics techniques and information systems as outputs, to get the accuracy level high in this study, the researchers used several variations of parameters which eventually produced the best accuracy of the two methods. From 120 data tested using variations in test data and training data which are then processed using variations in the learning rate parameters and epochs. From the test results obtained the level of accuracy of pattern recognition in the backpropagation method is 99.17% with a learning rate variation of 0.1 and epoch 100, the learning vector quantization method has an accuracy rate of 96.67% with a variation of learning rate 1 and epoch 20 From the results of the comparison the Backpropagation method is superior in terms of accuracy so that it becomes the right method to use in exploring the potential of new students at STMIK PalComTech.

Thrombocyte disease is usually caused by abnormalities, such as abnormalities based on the number and morphological deformities of platelets. Examples of platelet abnormalities include small platelets in Wiskottldrich syndrome, giant platelets in some chronic myeloproliferative diseases, Benard Soulier syndrome and Macrothrombocytopenia in gray platelet syndrome. The usual problem of automatic FBC analysis is that undetectable morphological abnormalities of platelets so the microscopic examination is required using peripheral blood smear. But microscopic examination also has some weakness such as subjective depend on medical analyst/pathologist. We propose an accurate method to classify plateles from digitalization microscopic peripheral blood smear using combination of second order statistic feature extraction and comparing several methods. The comparing methods are K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) and Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ). In this feature extraction, we use Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM) to get Angular Second Moment (ASM), Invers Different Moment (IDM) and entropi values. Those values will be inserted as input in KNN classifier method to classify blood cell in peripheral blood smear. Classify of cells based on feature extraction values is divided into three classes (leukocytes, normal platelets and giant platelets). Based on the result of experiments, both of methods can classify platelets on all color channels with average accuracy are 83.67% for KNN and 74.75% for LVQ. So, The KNN classification method is better able than LVQ to classify platelets in peripheral blood smear.

Feature extraction is an important factor to improve the recognition rate of coal and gangue. The existing feature extraction methods have some shortcomings in coal and gangue recognition, such as unsatisfactory recognition rate for actual images. Therefore, aiming at the shortcomings of existing coal and gangue feature extraction methods in coal and gangue recognition, the contour feature extraction method is researched based on images analysis to coal and gangue recognition. The center normalization detrended fluctuation analysis (CNDFA) feature extraction algorithm of contour is proposed based on the process of contour feature extraction for coal and gangue. Based on the analysis of the representative features of coal and gangue, the extraction process of target contour features is established based on hardness difference. Combined with the overall features of contour curve after detrending, a center normalized CNDFA feature extraction algorithm is proposed. First, the detrended analysis of contour curve is realized by least square optimal fitting, and then the detrended data are normalized. Finally, the contour features are described quantitatively by multifractal (MF) spectrum to form the geometric features of the target contour curve, which is used to train the support vector machine classifier. The experiment is carried out on the basis of image preprocessing, and the CNDFA method and other feature extraction methods, such as wavelet, gray level co-occurrence matrix, gray level difference statistics, auto-correlation function, and MF, are applied to the contour feature extraction of coal and gangue. Through the comprehensive comparison of the results after different methods recognition in confusion matrix, accuracy, and coal cleanliness, it is concluded that the overall effect of the CNDFA method is better than other methods, and the accuracy is improved by 5% to 25%. The results show that the CNDFA method has better performance. Compared with the other methods, it can better extract the contour features to improve the recognition rate of coal and gangue.

Melanoma is one of the rare and malignant types of skin cancer. There are numerous ways to detect the melanoma, and one of them is through doctor diagnosis. A doctor can detect melanoma after a thorough medical check-up. If the patient has symptoms of melanoma, a biopsy will be carried out. This process requires a long time making it inconvenient. Therefore, an approach of the image processing system is necessary to assist the experts in diagnosing melanoma. The process consists of image input using the dermoscopy image, a pre-processing process of grey-scaling and median filtering, and feature extraction using Grey-Level Co-Occurrence Matrix (GLCM). In the final step, a classification process will be performed using learning vector quantization. Based on the experimental test, the system generated an accuracy of 83.33% in identifying melanoma cancer.

Solid waste bin level detection using gray level co-occurrence matrix feature extraction approach

A novel feature extraction method that utilizes nonlinear mapping from the original data space to the feature space is presented in this dissertation. Feature extraction methods aim to find compact representations of data that are easy to classify. Measurements with similar values are grouped to same category, while those with differing values are deemed to be of separate categories. For most practical systems, the meaningful features of a pattern class lie in a low dimensional nonlinear constraint region (manifold) within the high dimensional data space. A learning algorithm to model this nonlinear region and to project patterns to this feature space is developed. Least squares estimation approach that utilizes interdependency between points in training patterns is used to form the nonlinear region. The proposed feature extraction strategy is employed to improve face recognition accuracy under varying illumination conditions and facial expressions. Though the face features show variations under these conditions, the features of one individual tend to cluster together and can be considered as a neighborhood. Low dimensional representations of face patterns in the feature space may lie in a nonlinear constraint region, which when modeled leads to efficient pattern classification. A feature space encompassing multiple pattern classes can be trained by modeling a separate constraint region for each pattern class and obtaining a mean constraint region by averaging all the individual regions. Unlike most other nonlinear techniques, the proposed method provides an easy intuitive way to place new points onto a nonlinear region in the feature space. The proposed feature extraction and classification method results in improved accuracy when compared to the classical linear representations. Face recognition accuracy is further improved by introducing the concepts of modularity, discriminant analysis and phase congruency into the proposed method. In the modular approach, feature components are extracted from different sub-modules of the images and concatenated to make a single vector to represent a face region. By doing this we are able to extract features that are more representative of the local features of the face. When projected onto an arbitrary line, samples from well formed clusters could produce a confused mixture of samples from all the classes leading to poor recognition. Discriminant analysis aims to find an optimal line orientation for which the data classes are well separated. Experiments performed on various databases to evaluate the performance of the proposed face recognition technique have shown improvement in recognition accuracy, especially under varying illumination conditions and facial expressions. This shows that the integration of multiple subspaces, each representing a part of a higher order nonlinear function, could represent a pattern with variability. Research work is progressing to investigate the effectiveness of subspace projection methodology for building manifolds with other nonlinear functions and to identify the optimum nonlinear function from an object classification perspective.

Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ) is a popular method for multiclass classification. Several variants of LVQ have been developed recently, of which Robust Soft Learning Vector Quantization (RSLVQ) is a promising one. Although LVQ methods have an intuitive design with clear updating rules, their dynamics are not yet well understood. In simulations within a controlled environment RSLVQ performed very close to optimal. This controlled environment enabled us to perform a mathematical analysis as a first step in obtaining a better theoretical understanding of the learning dynamics. In this talk I will discuss the theoretical analysis and its results. Moreover, I will focus on the practical application of RSLVQ to a real world dataset containing extracted features from facial expression data.

The use of soft computing to classification of some weeds based on video processing