Forest site classification using Landsat 7 ETM data: A case study of Maçka-Ormanüstü forest, Turkey

Forest site classification has long been a problem for managers of Turkish forests. Forest management decisions and land use planning involving afforestation activities and silvicultural prescriptions are based on sound site information to formulate appropriate actions on the ground. In Turkey, two methods of forest site productivity are used; direct and indirect method. Indirect methods are usually reserved for practical applications as they are relatively simple, yet provide less accurate estimation of the real productivity. In this study direct, indirect and remote sensing (RS) methods were used to distinguish and map forest sites of Karanlikdere Forest District in Gumushane, Turkey. One hundred and twenty-two sample plots were established with 300 m × 300 m grids in summer of 2003. In each sample plot, soil samples and the classical timber inventory measurements were taken. According to direct method, water-air economy method is preferred due to a water deficiency in the study area. Four different forest site classes; very dry, dry, moderate fresh and fresh were determined and mapped with geographic information system (GIS). In indirect method, the guiding curve was used to generate anamorphic site indexes (SI) of three classes; good (SI = I and II), medium (SI = III) and poor (SI = IV and V). Furthermore, forest sites were estimated with Landsat 7 ETM (2000) data using supervised classification with a 0.843 kappa statistic value and 88% accuracy assessments. Some important differences between the methods were discovered. The indirect method indicate that site indices I and II are 298.5 ha, III 254.3 ha and IV and V 347.7 ha. In contrast, direct method related to very dry site of 107.7 ha, dry site of 484.6 ha, moderate fresh site of 304.7 ha and fresh site of 246.3 ha. Satellite image indicate that very dry site covers 291.2 ha, dry site 239.2 ha, moderate fresh site 287.4 and fresh site 325.5 ha. Approximately 242.8 ha area (open and degraded areas) were not determined by indirect method but were captured with RS method. The statistical analyses (ANOVA) showed no statistically significant (F = 0.720, p = 0.543) relationship between indirect method and direct method-RS method indicating clearly that indirect method is not an adequate measurement of forest site productivity. Forest sites, particularly in open and degraded areas should be determined with direct method.

Objective To compare the reproducibility and reliability of facial soft tissue landmarks using a direct and an indirect placement methods in facial three-dimensional (3D) soft tissue assessment.Methods 3D coordinates of 37 soft tissue landmarks were obtained respectively in 35 normal healthy volunteers from 3D optical capture system and Materialise's interactive medical image control system (Mimics).Landmarks were affixed on the cutaneous surface (direct method) and marked on the 3D reconstructed craniofacial model (indirect method).Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) and paired t-tests were used to compare the reliability and reproducibility of facial landmarks between two placement methods.Results For the direct placement method,86.5 ％ landmarks had an ICC higher than 0.75.For the indirect placement method,75.7％ landmarks had an ICC higher than 0.75.The inter-observer variability using the direct placement method was (1.259±0.566) mm,which was significantly smaller (P＜0.05) than (1.420±0.638) mm obtained by the indirect placement method.Conclusions Compared with indirect method,direct method has higher reliability and reproducibility in evaluating facial soft tissue. Key words: Computed tomography; Cephalometrics; Optical capture technology

The Direct and Indirect Methods of Ionospheric TEC Predictions and Their Comparison

Analysis of direct and indirect quantification methods of CO2 fixation via microalgae cultivation in photobioreactors: A critical review

The paper aims to investigate the impact of presenting statements of cash flow using the direct method and the indirect method on loan decision by credit officers at Vietnamese banks. The data was collected from 150 credit officers of commercial banks in Vietnam based on the questionnaire about making loan decision when the cash flow statement is presented in different methods, namely, direct and indirect methods. This research uses T-tests to check whether using the direct or indirect method affects the accurate calculation of loan criteria, affects the loan decision by credit officers, and compare these two methods in the aspects of information provision. The research has pointed out that: 1) the direct method helps the calculation of indicators related to loans more accurately; 2) credit officers say that, while the direct method of presenting cash flow statement provides clearer information, the use of either the direct method or the indirect method does not affect the banks' loan decision. Since then, the author recommends that cash flow statements should be provided with information in a direct method to present the information needed for loan decision more accurately so as to improve the quality of cash flow statement.

Affixing markers on the face in vivo with an optical surface imaging system and placing landmarks on a computed tomographic reconstructive facial model represent two helpful approaches prevailing in three-dimensional cephalometric analysis of facial aesthetics. In this study, the authors determine the suitability of these methods for soft-tissue evaluation along with the reproducibility and reliability of landmark placement. Thirty-seven soft-tissue landmarks were investigated in 35 normal healthy volunteers who underwent cephalometric analysis by direct and indirect placement methods. Two operators performed the analysis twice for each method at a 1-week interval. Landmark positions were measured on the three-dimensional coordinates, and data were standardized and converted into landmark placement errors for the estimation, by two-way random intraclass correlation coefficients. Using the direct method, 86.5 percent of the landmarks had a higher intraclass correlation coefficient than 0.75, and 67.6 percent were higher than 0.90. The authors found that 75.7 percent were higher than 0.75 and 43.2 percent were higher than 0.90 with the indirect method. Both methods showed good reliability in identifying midline-related structures, although the correlations of markers surrounding eyelashes and lips were better using the direct method. The direct method had a significantly smaller landmark placement error and better reproducibility than that identified indirectly (p<0.05). When evaluating well-defined contours and the natural texture of the face, the direct placement method shows better accuracy than the indirect method. The three-dimensional evaluation emphasizes the eye, lip, and some structures more laterally, therefore providing comprehensive analysis for clinical diagnosis. Diagnostic, II.

Background & objectives:Estimation of haemoglobin is the most widely used method to assess anaemia. Although direct cyanmethaemoglobin method is the recommended method for estimation of haemoglobin, but it may not be feasible under field conditions. Hence, the present study was undertaken to compare indirect cyanmethaemoglobin method against the conventional direct method for haemoglobin estimation.Methods:Haemoglobin levels were estimated for 888 adolescent girls aged 11-18 yr residing in an urban slum in Delhi by both direct and indirect cyanmethaemoglobin methods, and the results were compared.Results:The mean haemoglobin levels for 888 whole blood samples estimated by direct and indirect cyanmethaemoglobin method were 116.1 ± 12.7 and 110.5 ± 12.5 g/l, respectively, with a mean difference of 5.67 g/l (95% confidence interval: 5.45 to 5.90, P<0.001); which is equivalent to 0.567 g%. The prevalence of anaemia was reported as 59.6 and 78.2 per cent by direct and indirect methods, respectively. Sensitivity and specificity of indirect cyanmethaemoglobin method were 99.2 and 56.4 per cent, respectively. Using regression analysis, prediction equation was developed for indirect haemoglobin values.Interpretation & conclusions:The present findings revealed that indirect cyanmethaemoglobin method overestimated the prevalence of anaemia as compared to the direct method. However, if a correction factor is applied, indirect method could be successfully used for estimating true haemoglobin level. More studies should be undertaken to establish agreement and correction factor between direct and indirect cyanmethaemoglobin methods.

The as-cast properties of components with a columnar grain structure are very different from those with an equiaxed one. Under certain solidification conditions, zones of both structures can occur in an alloy casting; the boundary between the zones is the columnar-to-equiaxed transition (CET). A front-tracking model of dendritic solidification has been developed, which can predict the nucleation and growth of solid in undercooled liquid during a casting process. The growth process is described by dendrite tip kinetics, and is fully coupled to a fixed-grid control volume model of heat transfer during solidification. Using the front-tracking model, two methods for predicting the likelihood of an equiaxed zone forming ahead of a columnar front have been formulated, namely, an indirect method and a direct method. The indirect method is based on modelling the growth of the columnar front in the absence of equiaxed nucleation. The bulk liquid undercooling is monitored and an equiaxed indicator is calculated at each time step based on the extent of such undercooling at that time. The equiaxed indicator is a measure of the relative likelihood of an equiaxed zone forming. In the direct method nucleation and growth of individual equiaxed grains is treated ahead of the advancing columnar front. In this case, if impingement of neighbouring fronts is treated, the simulation to complete solidification will yield the macrostructure and the CET. In this paper, details of both methods of equiaxed prediction are presented. Results from the indirect method are compared to experimental results found in literature and agreement is found.

This article reports the pressure characteristic measurement of compressed hosiery via direct and indirect methods. In the direct method, an interface sensor is used to measure the pressure value exerted on the lower limbs. In the indirect method, the necessary parameters mentioned by the cone and cylinder model are tested to calculate the pressure value. The necessary parameters involve course density, wales density, circumference, length, thickness, tension, and deformation of the compressed hosiery. Compared with the results of the direct method, the cone model in the indirect method is more suitable for calculating the pressure value because the cone model considers the change in radius of the lower limb from the knee to the ankle. Based on this measurement, the relationship among fabrication, structure, and pressure is further investigated in this study. We find that graduation is the main influence that can change the wales density. On the other hand, elastic motors directly affect the course density and the circumference of the stockings. Our reported work provides the fabrication-structure-pressure relationship and a design guide for gradually compressed hosiery.

Age estimation from primary teeth is an important matter for forensic odontology, which can be found by the application of direct or indirect age estimation methods that are functions of tooth measurements. The most distinctive teeth among these are the upper central incisors, because of their early development. The aim of this study is to determine the age of fetuses or infants by measuring the tooth development directly from tooth surfaces or from indirect measurements obtained from the tooth structures on the computerized tomography digital images. The data of all measurements were statistically processed by regression analysis and regression formulas were derived. The results revealed that age could be estimated from various tooth dimensions within an accuracy of ±0-2 weeks for both methods and therefore indirect method -which was proposed as Virtual Dental Identification (VirDent-ID) by the authors PS. Aka and N. Canturk- could be a matter of choice instead of traditional direct oral autopsy methods. The best measurements for age estimation can be obtained from the longest vertical dimension, which is the tooth height, and the best age estimation formula was also generated from the tooth height. In conclusion, age formulas derived from direct or indirect measurements of fetus or infant tooth development stages may be used as an aid for dental identification, until the completion of upper central primary tooth development.

Transferring an accurate copy of the patient's soft and hard tissue to the dental laboratory is of essential importance. Various methods of implant impression have different outcomes on dimensions of final cast. This study aimed to compare two methods of implant impression on abutment level with and without impression coping on two parallel implants. In this experimental study, a resin model with two holes for fixing the implant was made. The first and second implants had a 4 and 11 mm distance to canine respectively. In this study two methods were used for impression: first was direct (without impression coping) and second was indirect (with the impression coping). Ten impressions were prepared for a total of 10 stone casts. For analyzing the abutment analogs positions, each cast was analyzed using a cruicial malformation and malarticulatoin (CMM) in three dimensions (X, Y, and Z). The difference in dimensions of final casts and laboratory models were analyzed using Independent t-test. The results did not show a significant difference between direct and indirect methods in Z and Y axis in absolute transmission (Δr). The dimensional changes in the X-axis in the direct method was 0.647 ± 0.155 which is 0.067 ± 0.146 more than the indirect method. A significant difference (p = 0.044) was observed between the two methods in X-axis. Based on the results, this research found the indirect impression on abutment surface to be more accurate than the direct one. In general, two methods were not significantly different, and dentists can use the simple method of the direct impression for making implant prosthetics. Reconstruction of implant's accurate position in the process of impression, along with a tension-free insertion, is the first step in having an accurate prosthesis. Abutment level impression with the impression coping is slightly more accurate than the one without impression coping.

Drying food products is the oldest and cheapest technique of preserving food for a long time. Since green energy is abundant and free, adopting green energy in the drying process is the best solution for food product drying. Drying involves reducing moisture content from food products, which aids in long-term food preservation and prevents food product deterioration. Several drying methods are developed utilizing green energy (solar, wind, biomass, geothermal energy, etc.) in the drying process. Solar energy can be used majorly for drying applications, and other sources of green energy can be used for enhancing the drying performance. The solar drying method includes direct, indirect, and mixed-mode drying processes. Products relating to food are placed in direct sunlight exposure for drying in the direct method, which may influence the color, fragrance, and nutrient value of the dried material after drying. In the indirect method, solar energy is typically employed to create warm air that is used to dry food goods, but in the mixed method, a combination of direct and indirect methods is used for drying. Several technical advancements in the field of food product drying have occurred in recent years, resulting in more efficient energy use and the production of high-quality dried products. Even though solar energy is irregular in nature, so there is a chance for reabsorption of moisture content in the surrounding environment to food products to be dried. So, energy storage is required to overcome this limitation. Green energy storage technology is used to facilitate the drying process. The theory of food products drying, technological developments, and the economics of different drying techniques to dry food products are given and explored in this chapter. Finally, the most important problems and possibilities of drying technology are investigated.KeywordsGreen energySolar dryersThermal energy storagePhase change materials

Unifying aspect of Liapunov's direct and indirect methods in the stability analysis of Aloha systems

SYNOPSIS. Respiration of Tetrahymena pyriformis W, grown in Proteose peptone‐glucose medium, was determined by Warburg's direct and indirect methods. The Qo2 varied inversely with cell concentration under exogenous conditions (cells in conditioned medium, i.e., one which had supported growth) as determined by both methods, and under endogenous conditions (washed cells suspended in salts solution) when determined by the indirect method. Endogenous respiration, measured by the direct method, was low but independent of cell concentration.Respiration, determined by the direct method, was little affected by lowered O2 availability, but varied directly with nutrient availability. The inhibitor, malonate, which also stimulates respiration at greater dilutions, inhibited respiration at 10−2M when present with low cell concentrations, but stimulated at high cell concentrations.The reduced respiration at higher cell concentrations is thought less due to lack of O2 than to CO2 accumulation and competition for nutrients. Consideration of these variables is essential in comparing data from the literature.

Forest inventory in Manitoba reveals that considerable forest harvest expansion is possible because of present underutilization. Although underutilization does occur in some forest sections, Manitoba's 20-year forest management plan predicts shortages of softwood in currently utilized sections before the end of this decade. Better forest management is recognized as one way to overcome these expected shortages. Development of an effective forest management site classification system is seen as a necessary basis for this implementation. As a prerequisite to the development of such a system, current and future site classification information needs of professional management foresters in Manitoba were surveyed by means of a questionnaire and personal interviews. They were asked to identify the kinds of site classification information needed for different forest management programs and decisions, and to further qualify these in terms of location, scale and temporal suitability. Results of this survey indicate that a system involving both mapping and site-specific approaches is needed. Keywords: forest site classification, Manitoba, forest management, user needs, site mapping