From Stereotype to Archetype:

In modern social psychology, the study of determinants of social cognition suggests research into the social psychological mechanisms affecting the way an actor builds a consistent orderly image of the world. Researchers examine the mechanisms involved in the cognition and conception of social reality by an individual, and in reality's representation as his/her internal picture of the world, which necessitates the study of the social context making for the supra-individual character of social cognition and its attributes. The related problem of social stereotypes and stereotyping is core to the study of how the image of the interaction partner is formed.Traditionally, social stereotypes, including gender ones, are approached as a priori images the individual creates in the process of his/her socialization, and invokes when evaluating people (Dontsov, Stefanenko, 2008). Social stereotypes result from the categorization of social experience conditioned by culture and upbringing. Social stereotypes reflect the typification of habitual estimates, expectations, viewpoints and prejudices. Such concepts of social bonds and relations are formed within a single culture and are stably shared by its members. They help maintain socially acceptable models of behaviour and the system's overall functioning. Stereotypes also satisfy individuals' intersubjective need for 'rock-solid val- ues' and for standards of 'proper' social behaviour. As a factor in social relations, they provide consolidation not only of groups (gender or other), but of society in general (Dontsov, Emelyanova, 1987).On the other hand, the mechanism of stereotyping manifests itself as part of the social perception process in human interaction (Kabalevskaya, 2012). The need for 'social knowledge' contained in stereotypes is conditioned by the need to promptly and socially accurately perceive and conceive reality. The schematic image of the percept acquires an applied aspect: it serves as a supply of 'ready-made knowledge' sparing the individual's efforts. Such knowledge covers acceptable behaviour, as well as motivational and role expectancies. It underlies the subject's interpretation of reality: the individual attributes his or her own expectations to the other, and sees the other's behaviour against this framework. Also, the individual seeks to pattern his/her behaviour following culturally determined expectations reflected in the stereotype. All this suggests that stereotypes should, first and foremost, be stud- ied a priori with respect to the subject. In the current tradition of their empirical study, stereotypes are largely viewed as a result of stereotyping, i.e. retrospectively, and analyzed as socially typing categorical schemes. Analyzing such stereotyped knowledge, researchers tend to focus on its development process and content as re- flecting the existing social discourse. But stereotyping would be also interesting to investigate from another angle, i.e. the application of stereotyped knowledge and its use in evaluating people. In other words, since individuals' interaction and mutual perception are mediated and regulated by internal constructs ('social stereotypes'), we need look at how these constructs are actualized, and at the causes and conditions of stereotype formation by an individual. However, the problem of stereotype actualization in people's behaviour and activity has only recently entered the scientific agenda and so far not been given proper consideration, although it is clearly a promising area for social psychology.Traditional studies of social stereotypes (including gender) as historically evolved patterns of collective consciousness do not reveal the actual mechanisms of perception triggering the stereotyping process which is objectively (and perceptibly) caused by subjects' activity. To reveal these mechanisms, we need to explore the actual interaction between subjects and objects, particularly aspects of interaction providing for the appearance and actualization of gender stereotypes. …

Introduction Although insomnia symptoms (e.g., sleep disturbances, daytime complaints) are more prevalent in older age, poor sleep is not guaranteed in older adulthood. Preliminary research has found a relationship between an individual’s greater awareness of age-related changes and poor sleep; however, more research is needed to observe this relationship in insomnia and aging stereotypes. Using data from a nationally representative sample of U.S. veterans, the present study sought to characterize the relationship between negative aging stereotypes and clinical insomnia symptoms. Methods Participants (N=3,000) were older veterans (aged 60-99) who participated in the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study (NHRVS). Participants reported their insomnia severity (Insomnia Severity Index [ISI]), sleep disturbance (ISI Factor 1 [items1,2,3]), and daytime dysfunction (ISI Factor 2 [items4,5,6,7]). Negative aging stereotypes were assessed using a 3-item Expectations Regarding Aging scale, which assessed negative stereotypes related to emotional, physical, and cognitive aging. Sociodemographic characteristics, mental health and medical conditions, traumatic life events, physical activity, disability, and psychotropic medication use were also assessed. Results Veterans who screened positive for clinical insomnia (n=213; weighted 7.1%) scored significantly higher on measures of negative stereotypes regarding emotional (p<.001), physical (p=.003), and cognitive (p=.013) aging. Multivariable regression analyses revealed that, after adjusting for a broad range of sociodemographic, trauma, and health covariates, greater endorsement of negative stereotypes regarding emotional aging was associated with significantly greater odds of screening positive for clinical insomnia (OR=1.57, 95%CI=1.24-1.99, p<.001), as well as higher rates of sleep disturbance (OR=1.54, 95%CI=1.28-1.86, p<.001) and daytime dysfunction (OR=1.67, 95%CI=1.40-2.00, p<.001). Relative to veterans who fully rejected aging stereotypes, those who somewhat and fully endorsed them were 3- and 6-times more likely to screen positive for clinical insomnia, respectively (predicted probabilities=0.10 and 0.18 vs. 0.03). Conclusion Negative aging stereotypes, especially emotional aging, were related to clinical insomnia symptoms in a nationally representative sample of U.S. veterans aged 60+. These findings suggest that efforts to modify aging stereotypes in older veterans may help improve overall sleep quality, or alternatively, that addressing clinical insomnia may help mitigate negative aging stereotypes. Longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate interrelationships between these measures over time. Support (if any)

Achievement gaps between social groups may result from stereotype threat effects but also from stereotype lift effects—the performance boost caused by the awareness that an outgroup is negatively stereotyped. We examined stereotype lift and threat effects in the motor domain and investigated their mediation by task involvement and self-confidence, measured by heart rate reactivity and self-reported indices. Males and females performed a balance task about which negative stereotypes about either males or females were given. No gender information was given in a control condition. Results showed no stereotype threat but a stereotype lift effect, participants performing significantly better after negative outgroup stereotypes were explicitly linked to performance on the balance task compared to the control condition. Concerning males, this effect was mediated by higher self-confidence and task involvement. The implications of these results for understanding the gender inequalities in the motor domain are discussed.

This study examined whether age-related discrimination, negative age-related stereotypes about declining abilities due to age, job engagement (cognitive, physical, and emotional), and workplace intergenerational climate in terms of positive intergenerational affect (PIA) and workplace intergenerational inclusiveness (WIG) correlated with life satisfaction in a university setting. The analysis was based on 115–117 faculty and staff, 50 years or older. A Principal Axis factor analysis with Promax rotation on the job-related variable revealed three factors: Experiencing Ageism (discrimination and negative stereotypes), Work Climate (PIA and WIG), and Job Engagement (physical, emotional, and cognitive). The factor-based regression scores on the three-factor-based scores were correlated with life satisfaction and also subjected to hierarchical regression analyses with age, sex, and education entered on the first step and the three factors on the second step. The results of both the correlational and hierarchical regression analysis indicated that experiencing ageism was significantly predictive of life satisfaction, and that ageism may play a more primary role than job engagement and work climate-related variables in accounting for life satisfaction.

The author analyzes the essential characteristics of the stability and variability of stereotypes, the formation and functioning of social and professional stereotypes. Various points of view of domestic and foreign scientists are presented, revealing the understanding of the term "Stereotypes" in interpersonal and intergroup relations and their socio-psychological features. Examples of the emergence, change and disappearance of social stereotypes, as well as the formation and causes of negative stereotypes are studied. The author considers a person's vision of social reality and hinders adequate mutual understanding of people as well as the integration of both intergroup and interpersonal relationships, which leads to increased interpersonal tension in the interaction between people. The main conclusions of the study are that social stereotypes are the result of information received through various sources and are only generalized representations of social reality. In conditions of information scarcity, the social stereotype plays a conservative role, forming people's misconceptions about what is happening, deforming the process of interpretation and the nature of interpersonal interaction. The formation and functioning of stereotypes directly depend on a person's awareness of social and professional reality. When people interact with each other, stereotyping carries an evaluative burden and is mainly a negative phenomenon. A distorted vision of social reality prevents adequate mutual understanding of people and integration of both intergroup and interpersonal relationships, which leads to increased interpersonal and intergroup tension.

The subject of the survey connects to the monarchy time as a historical period. The monarchy-literature brought important stereotypes. This survey is connected with the examination of these stereotypes. At the approach of the academic area of the identity and the imagology I prove Lacan’s reflection- VIII theory. This work is an expose of a doctoral dissertation which is examines parallel phenomena which appear with the monarchy stereotypes. The cornerstone of this work is the interaction of the identities which strongly connects to the stereotypes. The practical examination of the above-mentioned theoretical factors is based on the contemporary Voivodinian short stories within the short stories by Herceg Janos, Juhasz Erzsebet, Lovas Ildiko, Balazs Attila, Tolnai Otto, Majoros Sandor, Nemeth Istvan, Gion Nandor, Aaron Blum, Mimics Gyula, Bencsik Orsolya es Szathma- ri Istvan. Besides it this work makes comparable glancing out the Austrian and Voivodinian literatures. On the one hand, the dissertation discusses briefly three closely related categories on theoretical level like stereotype, imagology and identity. Inside the stereotype category there is a separate chapter about the wanted-to- prove branches of the monarchy stereotypes (national, ethnic, historical, social- economic etc.). The thesis discusses the definition, the type and the development of these stereotypes. On the other hand, a brief survey of the monarchy’s historical background is offered by this work, as the leading social and communal norms, values mark the distinctive features of the separation and dissociation, which can be found in the short stories. The examination of the above-mentioned stereotypes and the appearance of the connecting ideas is written through the short stories using a comparative IX view. The survey wants to prove that the contemporary Voivodinian Hungarian short-storywriters often continue the monarchy stereotypes especially the ethnic stereotypes and the historical stereotypes originating from living together, and it tries to go round the importance of the economic stereotypes appearing in the short stories. The monarchy stereotypes which can be found among the cultures is one of the part of the survey. The text contains a picturesque form of the literature. Between the literature and the painting there is an intermediate connection, therefore in the short stories the language imagery description is shown with this the painting is placed into the field of the survey.

The purpose of this thesis was to further our understanding of the role of distributed cognition (with the use of pen and paper) in defusing the impact of evaluative pressure caused by priming gender-related stereotypes about girls’ maths performance and performance-approach goals on mental arithmetic performance. Interactivity is the transferring of internal cognitive process (e.g., computing simple maths tasks) to the outside world by using different tools (e.g., pen and paper). Some members of social groups (e.g., women) may not perform well in mathematics after negative stereotypes about their academic performance in the mathematical domain, which is known as stereotype threat. Stereotype threat is the risk of confirming a negative stereotype expectation about one’s group. Another decrement to performance may be caused by achievement goals, such as performance-approach goals. Performance-approach goals are linked to normative behaviour where the individual is motivated by outperforming others in academic performance. Negative stereotyping and performance-approach goals can generate anxiety that deplete existing working memory resources. However, some of these working memory limitations can be compensated by off-loading the internal cognitive process to the external environment. We tested whether off-loading could buffer the effects of stereotype threat and performance-approach goals in four experiments. In Studies 1 (16-year-old girls) and 2 (female university students), participants carried out mental arithmetic tasks in the stereotype threat condition or control, crossed with interactivity or no interactivity. There was increased maths performance (accuracies) with interactivity, confirming existing literature. Additionally, the solution latencies were improved when the mental arithmetic tasks were in a known format. However, when the maths tasks were in a novel format, the participants of the second study became slower because of speed-accuracy trade-off. The first two studies found no statistically significant effects of stereotype threat on maths performance. Nevertheless, working memory in participants in Study 1 was depleted in the stereotype threat condition, but it did not affect mental arithmetic performance. Finally, the participants in the interactive conditions in Study 2 had a reduction of their state maths anxiety levels measured at the end of the experiment. Studies 3 (Pilot Study) and 4 focused on achievement goals and their differing effects on working memory. Female university students carried out modular arithmetic tasks in a performance-approach goal or mastery-approach goal condition crossed with interactivity or no interactivity. Performance-approach goal endorsement hampered cognitive performance, as measured by maths accuracy in Study 3, but not in Study 4. These findings were extended in Study 4 where these negative effects were reduced with the help of interactivity. Across both studies, individuals in the mastery-approach goal condition had a performance drop in the interactive condition (Study 3 and 4). Thus, interactivity did not benefit the cognitive performance of these participants. Finally, Study 4 reported higher maths anxiety levels for the individuals in the performance-approach condition. However, the increased maths anxiety levels were not reduced with the help of distributed cognition. Reasons for the findings and future implications will be discussed.

Introduction: Since 2015, increased numbers of refugee families with pre-school-aged children have arrived in Germany. In pre-schools, teachers' professional competence for teaching those children and adapting to their socio-emotional needs has become increasingly important. Previous research linked teachers' stereotypes and cultural beliefs to their self-efficacy and enthusiasm when teaching immigrant children. This study investigated the links between domains of pre-school teachers' professional competence (i.e., negative stereotypes, multicultural beliefs, self-efficacy, and enthusiasm when teaching newly arrived refugee children), and examined whether teachers' professional competence was linked to their perceptions of newly arrived refugee children's behavior problems.Method: In a cross-sectional self-report survey, N = 147 German pre-school teachers reported on their professional competence and completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) for a selected refugee child from their pre-school group. We used regression modeling to link teachers' negative stereotypes and multicultural beliefs to their self-efficacy and enthusiasm for teaching refugee children. Next, we examined the links between teachers' beliefs, values, and motivational orientations to their ratings on the SDQ subscales. Last, we linked demographic data on teachers and children to teachers' professional competence and SDQ ratings.Results: Teachers with more negative stereotypes toward newly arrived refugee children and less agreement with multicultural beliefs reported lower self-efficacy and enthusiasm for teaching newly arrived refugee children. Teachers with more negative stereotypes perceived more hyperactivity/inattention and total difficulties. Teachers with higher self-efficacy perceived less hyperactivity/inattention, less total difficulties, and more prosocial behavior. Additionally, teachers who had more experience with refugee children reported more negative stereotypes and higher agreement with multicultural beliefs. Teachers having more overall work experience perceived more total difficulties. Boys were perceived to display more externalizing behavior problems, less prosocial behavior, and more total difficulties. Older children were perceived as displaying more prosocial behavior and children from African countries were perceived as displaying more conduct problems.Discussion: Our findings suggest that pre-school teachers' stereotypes and self-efficacy might be related to perception biases concerning newly arrived refugee children's externalizing behavior problems. Implications for the professional development of pre-school teachers and teacher-informant diagnostics of refugee children's socio-emotional needs are discussed.

The functions of ethnic identity: A New Mexico Hispanic example

Borrowing the concept of the Sraddha ritual, grave pilgrimage, nyekar or similar terms that carry important values about our attachment to our ancestors as a form of respect, many negative stereotypes are pinned on those who still perform rituals which are then only seen as a mystical, futile and ancient act without knowing the true meaning of the ritual in the concept of constructive interpretation. Dworkin emphasizes that a difference of opinion usually arises because of the different interpretation bases. This study will be carried out using the interpretation theory proposed by Ronald Dworkin as an analytical tool for the grave pilgrimage ritual or Sraddha. Based on the explanation of the Sraddha concept, it will be seen the philosophical aspects underlying the existence of similar rituals that are still carried out by some people in the eyes of the Mysticism and Logic concept proposed by Bertrand Russell. The four aspects that are understood as the characteristics of a society that adheres to mysticism can be a logical explanation for the combination of traditional values and culture of Sraddha which is not only still practiced by believers but also society in general. Through the presentation of the concepts in this study, it is hoped that this can be a way to straighten out negative misconceptions or stereotypes about spiritual practitioners that have been developing a lot in society.

We address whether individual variation in internalization of positive or negative racial stereotypes was associated with low levels of self-esteem in a national probability sample of 2,107 self-identified black adults interviewed face-to-face in 1980 (National Survey of Black Americans). Rejection of positive stereotypes and acceptance of negative stereotypes were statistically linked to declining levels of self-esteem, controlling for background variables such as gender, region, education, age, income, marital status, and skin color. Weak evidence was found to suggest that the relationship between negative stereotype acceptance and self-esteem depended upon how close respondents felt to other blacks. We advocate that closer attention be given to conceptualizing internalization and measuring its psychological impact among stigmatized groups exposed to social discrimination.

The preponderance of female stereotypes in various films has become intense. Regardless of film genre, its effect on media-saturated culture has become somehow profound. This has become a concern to many people especially to feminists. Hence, this film study is conducted to explore how the female lead characters are stereotyped in films particularly in select official James Bond 007 films. During the analysis, the researcher utilizes an adapted film analysis rubric. The results show that: 1) the leading female characters in the three films analyzed are portrayed mainly as objects of Bond’s sexual desire while he establishes and maintains a chauvinistic role all throughout each film; 2) Bond engages in dualistic relationships with the lead female characters when he uses them to satisfy his own desires for a woman as a means to an end (as particularly exemplified and portrayed in the character of Countess Lisl in For Your Eyes Only); 3) the treatment of some female stereotypes in the three films analyzed is consistent, e.g. a particular stereotype of a lead female character as object of sexual desire is sustained all throughout the film. The study, therefore, concludes that the lead female characters in the select films are generally portrayed in oppressive stereotypes. Keywords: Mass Communication, lead female character, female stereotypes, James Bond007, descriptive design (qualitative film analysis), Philippines

Introduction: The processes related to social cognitions contribute as a traumatic and stressful event for some ethnic and minority groups, causing a series of psychic suffering in individuals. Social cognition considered stereotypes as characteristics of a group included in its mental representation. Objective: The study was conducted to analyze the negative stereotypes in two cultures with very different history and geopolitical context, especially how stereotypes are reflected in the cognitive component of prejudiced attitudes. Method: Four hundred fifty one (N=451) undergraduate students volunteered to take part in the study, the participants came from careers in the area of Social Sciences and Humanities in the non-probabilistic sample. After receiving the information, participants completed Negative Stereotype Index. A descriptive analysis and the T-test to know the differences between the perception and self-perception of the groups. Results: Show that negative stereotype traits in Poland and Brazil, found negative stereotypic traits attributed to an out-group resulted in more unfavorable evaluations than descriptions consisting of positive attributes. In both groups, and their antecedents were associated with negative out-group attitudes, however, is a more general and more important one. Conclusion: The findings found that expectations about the out group and negative stereotypes occur in conjunction with other negative emotions, which intensify negative out-group attitudes. The assessment that the Poles made of the Germans was like that of the Brazilians of the Argentines or of a group of relatively higher status. That is, they considered the Germans as more arrogant, sincere and less modest. The different groups of people may dislike each other for similar reasons. Explanations are offered for the limitations of the study and proposal for future research.

This study focuses on gender representation of reading texts, dialogues and pictures in a textbook “When English Rings a Bell” for Grade VII Junior High School. It used a descriptive qualitative approach, and its objective was both to investigate gender representation in the reading texts, dialogues and pictures, and to describe the differences and similarities of each representation. The study revealed that female domination was found in the reading texts as seen from gender visibility, gender specific noun, and male domination was seen from gender stereotype. Similarly, female domination was also found in the dialogues as seen from gender visibility and gender specific noun, while male domination was seen from gender stereotype. However, male domination was found in the pictures as seen from gender visibility and gender stereotype. Hence, both the reading texts and the dialogues showed female domination as seen from gender visibility, gender neutral, and gender specific noun. They also presented gender stereotype showing male domination. On the other hand, the pictures showed male domination. In conclusion, the textbook was dominated by female representation in term of the reading texts and the dialogues, and by male representation in term of the pictures. It also contained gender stereotypes placing females less dominant than males.

Depressive symptoms and memory impairments are associated with heightened stress hormone levels during aging. A factor that is related to memory deficits during aging is internalized negative aging stereotypes; the idea people have about the process of aging. In this study, we assessed the associations between internalized negative aging stereotypes, depressive symptoms, subjective and objective memory assessments, and cortisol concentration among older adults. Forty older adults aged between 58 and 85 years (18 females and 22 males; mean age ± SD: 71.25 ± 8.80 years) were assessed in this study. Measures of internalized negative aging stereotypes, depressive symptoms, and both subjective and objective memory performance were assessed. Salivary samples were obtained for measurement of cortisol concentration. Stepwise linear regressions were executed in our main analyses. Internalized negative aging stereotypes were associated with increased depressive symptoms and subjective memory complaints. No significant differences were observed for objective memory performance, or cortisol concentration. Internalized negative aging stereotypes are associated with increased depressive symptomatology and subjective complaints of memory; however, they do not predict increased cortisol concentration nor objective memory performance during aging. These results indicate that the mechanism underlying the association between internalized negative aging stereotypes and cognitive impairments may not be related to dysregulations of cortisol secretion among older adults.