From the Editor: Empirical Knowledge and the Scientific Method

Conventional Principles in Science: On the foundations and development of the relativized a priori

Does Professor Watson really believe that ‘all forms of research involving subjectivity – such as phenomenology, grounded theory and ethnography – are not scientific’ (p. 217) and by implication that they have little to offer to nursing research? If so, we suggest he has a very limited and partial view of the purpose and potential of nursing research. His provocative editorial will no doubt stimulate debate concerning the definition of ‘scientific’ nursing research and as colleagues (and friends) of Prof. Watson, we know he will relish the ripples created! We initiate this process by exposing what we believe to be a numberof fundamentalflaws inWatson’s argument, namely the definition of science, the subjective/objective binary and the old chestnut – the quantitative/ qualitative debate.

This article analyses the role of science and scientific research in the modern world, highlighting the importance of scientific research methodology in the development of modern science. Science, along with education, is considered to be two of the most crucial spheres in society's future. Throughout history, mankind has employed knowledge to study and organize the world. The Renaissance period is recognized as a pivotal phase in the development of science, laying the groundwork for classical natural science and serving as the basis for the emergence of social sciences, known as "humanities." In the XVIII and XIX centuries, the philosophy of science emerged, focusing on the analysis of scientific activity and the scientific process itself. Theoretical and methodological principles of science were developed, scientific theory was examined, and distinctions were made between gnoseology, logic, and the methodology of science. Within the field of science studies, it is emphasized that professional scientists adhere to specific methodological principles in their research, particularly the dialectic interaction between empirical and theoretical knowledge. Fundamental and applied research represent different levels of the scientific pursuit of truth, employing diverse methodologies consisting of rules, principles, and research methods. Modern science encompasses a multilevel concept of scientific knowledge methodology, encompassing philosophical, general scientific, and partial research methods. These methods possess unique characteristics across different disciplines and hold varying significance for their respective development. Philosophical methods are universal and abstract in nature, while general scientific methods aid in the analysis of existing practices and the current state of theory development. Commonly recognized general research methods and techniques include analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction, abstraction and generalization, modelling, statistical methods, and analogy. Moreover, the interconnectedness of various scientific disciplines in contemporary times has led to the increased utilization of approaches and methods from one field in another, giving rise to intra- and interdisciplinary methods.

The science behind codes and standards for safe walkways: Changes in level, stairways, stair handrails and slip resistance

Weber notes that the cultural sciences investigate and provide “knowledge of reality with respect to its cultural significance” (OSS, 75). In other words, meaning (Sinn) is the “what?” that the cultural sciences study. But keeping in mind that meaning cannot be characterized as either a “fact” or a “value” in some absolutely “objective” sense, the question emerges regarding the “objective” character of knowledge provided by the scientific investigation of meaningful cultural phenomena. Weber describes the presupposition implicit in this question in these terms: When we distinguished in principle between “value-judgment” and “empirical knowledge,” we presupposed the existence of an unconditional valid type of knowledge in the social sciences, i.e., the analytical order of empirical social reality. (OSS, 63) Even though meaning (Sinn) is simultaneously a fact and a value, Weber posits that a distinction can be drawn between the two different aspects and that scientific inquiry requires an “objective” distinction between the two. This claim is itself based on the presupposition that there exists an “unconditional valid type” of knowledge by means of which this distinction can be drawn. Speaking of this presupposition, Weber notes: “This presupposition now becomes our problem in the sense that we must discuss the meaning of objectively ‘valid’ truth in the social sciences” (OSS, 63). In other words, how do we arrive at objectively valid scientific knowledge (or “truth”)? The manner in which Weber investigates and eventually resolves this question parallels and complements the manner in which he investigates and resolves the question: What does scientific inquiry investigate?KeywordsAbstract ConceptKnowledge ClaimEmpirical RealityCultural PhenomenonConcrete ExperienceThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

A rational thinking with an insight into the superior order of things as contained in the divine scheme of this universe leads to an integrated vision of spirituality and science which gives a reflection of divine culture essentially required for the well-being of this world. Philosophy connecting theology and science builds a bridge between spiritual and scientific thinking; and thereby, dissolving the apparently visible differences presents an integrated whole in which a spiritualist becomes a scientist and a scientist becomes a spiritualist. Human mind embellished with spiritual and scientific system of thinking rooted in divine culture reflects ethical values of innate divinity. Rational and empirical priori and posteriori forms of knowledge indeed represent spiritual and scientific thinking process of human mind. Spirituality is a God-particle discovered recently by the science; moreover, scientists approve that scientific musing has its roots in mystical experience which is a direct route to the apprehension of reality and truth. The integrated notion of rational and empirical knowledge is the reflection of divinely designed culture which demands its absorption in human beings on this planet with a sense of eco-justice with the fellow-beings living on the Mother Earth.

The subject of analysis is the nature of scientific research and the issue of scientific fact viewpoint in two different perspectives. One perspective, which is traditional, considers the scientific research and the fact as an element that enjoys an absolute objectivity quality whereas the postmodern perspective considers it as a social construction of relative nature. The idea is to be demonstrated the new postmodern condition of the the scientific research which considers the latter as a theoretical and practical tool that is articulated by specific interests and social groups. In this respect, the science and its facts are interpretive elements of reality produced by social groups serving the latter. As a conclusion we can emphasize that scientific research is oriented and managed by communities of certain social groups. All elements and structures of this research are far from a neutral objectivity since they are influenced by social and historical interests. Consequently, it is impossible to separate the fact from issues of evaluation that classify it as such. On a more theoretical general level it becomes impossible the explicit separation and distinction between the empirical content and the conceptual approach of the scientific fact. Keywords: social construction, fact, value, hermeneutics.

Political science is typically considered an empirical science; that is, it builds its conclusions upon data analy- sis. However, some studies within the eld of political science concern normative questions and cannot use empirical data in the same way as the empirical sciences but must instead rely on evaluative reasoning. is article proposes a systematic way of thinking about the method of normative political science. It elaborates upon the central elements of this method and argues that, contrary to what one might think, the method of normative political science is similar to that of mainstream political science in many respects.

In this article, we are trying to grasp the role of hisroricism in the understanding of epistemology in the late of XX century. From Bacon to enlightenment, it has been understood that the only criterion of science based on natural sciences. The extent of science has also been determined as study according to the method of the natural sciences, therefore the sciences concerned with history and society has also determined according to method of the natural sciences. In this article authors aims to introduce to movement called Historicism. Which is emerged in XIX century as a critical viewpoint against classical approach to the science. Most influential figure of this movement was German thinker Wilhelm Dilthey. Dilthey had an anti-positivist attitude towards the established methodology by natural science. Which was saying that in order to be a science every researcher must have rigorous set of rules and their research must based on experiment results, observable facts, and objective evidence. Starting from Dilthey and with help of other philosophical schools new movement called historicism starts its journey to establishing new methodology to human and social science. And this movement made a classification of science. They divided science into natural and spiritual science. Each of science has its own methods and object of study. They believed that to social and human study we cannot apply natural science methods of research due to it is not a physical or biological subject but it is social life and human destiny and history. Considering this process of change, is it possible to talk about historicism as a contemporary epistemological approach? As a methodology, can we talk about history in the separation of positive science? What is the subject of history in social and human sciences? By moving from this questions, we will try to understand the role of historicism in the contemprory philosophy on the hermeneutical phenomenological approach.

This chapter introduces the phenomenological possibility and condition of intuition. Among the Greeks, two kinds of intuition are obtainable. The first is non-rational intuition consisting of intimations of mystical essences that lie beyond ordinary cognition. Plato and Socrates are mostly concerned with this kind, with almost every dialogue touching upon the question of essences—of justice, goodness, language, and so on. Although the Platonic dialogues are every bit logical in their approach to the inquiry at hand, yet they are never very far from the spiritual dimension. Aristotle, on the other hand, looks to intuition or direct knowledge as the way in which empirical knowledge can be founded. But even here, nous (intuitive knowledge) is acknowledged as superior to empirical knowledge. The method of intuition is distinct from the method of science in that the latter attempts to piece together reality by apprehending the parts and making a mosaic out of the parts. Whereas intuition begins with the whole and finds meaning of the parts only in the context of the whole. For Kant, we cannot directly know or contact the world of nature. We construct our reality with the mental categories that are built into our perceptual schema. Kant dismisses the possibility of direct or intuitive knowledge. Consequently, Kant leaves us with more questions than answers. For example, nothing in the Kantian schema is able to solve the puzzle of the subject (consciousness) that contemplates or wonders about the nature of knowledge (world) itself, as we are doing just now. Going beyond Kant, is there a more adequate starting point of inquiry that helps us to directly grasp our relation to ourselves and the world?

For the effective development of Ukraine in the conditions of global changes (political, economic, social, educational) the priority should be transition to a new economy – knowledge economy. The basis of knowledge economy will be the professional development of specialists in innovative business structures through lifelong learning, in particular formation of their transversal competencies. These qualitatively new specialists will be able to ensure the transition of companies to innovative forms of organization of production activities. The purpose of the article is to reveal the importance of transversal competencies formation among specialists of innovative business structures in lifelong learning to ensure competitiveness of Ukrainian companies at the international level. Methodology. To achieve the goal, general scientific and special research methods were used: comparative analysis and generalization – to study the international experience of innovative business structures; synthesis of theoretical and empirical data – to characterize Ukrainian companies according to the innovation index; structural-functional and system analysis – to study the features of knowledge economy and form hard, soft and business skills. Results. In formation of business structures, Ukraine still uses traditional criteria, while in the world there are innovative approaches – companies "gazelles", clusters, etc. Characteristic features and problems of gazelle companies functioning are analyzed, in particular concerning the personnel component. It is proposed to consider successful enterprises as centers of new economic zones, around which related enterprises, promotion infrastructure, clusters should be purposefully built. It is determined that national economic competitiveness is associated with knowledge and innovation driven capital. Two approaches to the management of business structures are analyzed. The first is based on implementation of subject-subject relationships, development of innovative transversal competencies in order to expand managers' “breadth of management skills" through LLL-education. The second is the experience of innovative enterprises, where management is transformed into information management with its inherent impersonal post / non / management. Formation of the phenomenon of transversal competencies on the basis of LLL-education is analyzed. This is ensured by changes in hard skills, acquisition of new soft skills and integrated business skills, which contributes to the creation of a new generation of professionals. It is determined that business skills are integrated from soft skills, which accumulate intellectual property knowledge, investment and financial literacy, sales skills, presentations and business negotiations, event management, project management, people, their work and time, etc. Emphasis is placed on the importance of forming knowledge economy based on the intellectual potential of society, in which the main levers are the processes of accumulation and use of information and its transformation into knowledge, which depends on the economic progress of the country. It is determined that on the basis of formation of scientific and educational clusters, introduction of crowd technologies, crowdsourcing in education during life the professional development of experts of innovative business structures will be provided. Practical importance. The results of the research can be used in the creation of training programs, retraining, reskilling and changing types of work in the modern production space, which include provisions of knowledge economy for professional development of innovative business structures through lifelong learning. The basic postulates of research can be useful for managers whose companies implement innovative approaches to management, the latest technologies in production activities and promote mobility in retraining in accordance with sociel needs. Correlation/ originality. Conclusions reached will help economists, politologists, social scientists and LLL learning educators to understand the importance of innovative concepts in development business structures and formation transverse competencies based on hard, soft and business skills.

![][1] The other day I suffered the sporting equivalent of dropping a brick on my big toe. This got me to contemplating those life-altering moments in science that we occasionally experience; you know, when nothing will ever look quite the same again. The first one I recall was

The expansion, densification and proliferation of urban areas around the world is currently occurring at a rate that is unprecedented in human history. It is predicted that global urban land cover will triple between 2000 and 2030, with some regions (including biodiversity hotspots) experiencing a ninefold increase in urban land cover over the same time period (Seto, G€ uneralp & Hutyra 2012). Accompanying the expansion of urban landscapes, it is anticipated that the human population living in cities and towns globally will increase from 3 5 to 5 billion people within the next 20 years (Fragkias et al. 2013). Thus, the demands of an expanding and urbanizing human population are one of the pressing ecological problems our world is facing (Sanderson et al. 2002), alongside, and in combination with, global climate change and changes to biodiversity at local and global scales (Pimm et al. 2014). Yet, urban environments also present a unique opportunity to expand our fundamental knowledge related to ecology and evolution due to the presence of intense and often novel selection pressures. In the inaugural issue of this journal, Calow (1987) defined functional ecology as the sum of three interactive processes: (i) those occurring between organisms and their environment, (ii) biotic interactions between organisms and (iii) adaptive processes driven by natural selection. The same three processes were highlighted 1 year earlier by Jared Diamond in Nature, when he called for biologists to pay more attention to the potential of using the unprecedented environmental conditions that exist within towns and cities to develop and test evolutionary and ecological theory (Diamond 1986). There is thus a natural synergy between functional ecology and urban ecology, as exemplified by some of the classic papers that have appeared in this journal, such as Rydell (1992) who demonstrated that the form of echolocation system determined the impact of light pollution on bat foraging behaviour. The potential of combining functional ecological research with urban ecology is, however, a long way from being fully realized. This is in part explained by the youth of urban ecology as a discipline. Scientific enquiry into the ecological consequences of urban environments has been underway for over half a century, although most of the momentum emerged after the mid 1990s (McDonnell 2011; Wu 2014). Thus, the focus of much urban research to date has involved describing patterns along environmental gradients (Gagn e 2013; McDonnell & Hahs 2013) rather than investigating the mechanistic processes that lie at the heart of functional ecology. To be effective in addressing the global challenges of urbanization, a much better understanding of how the urban environment affects the ecology and evolution of organisms needs to be developed (Grimm et al. 2008; Marzluff 2012; Gil & Brumm 2014; McDonnell & Hahs 2015). The purpose of this special feature is to draw attention to the plethora of opportunities that await researchers investigating the ecology and evolution of organisms in urban environments. The combination of environmental stressors and conditions within urban areas provides a novel opportunity to test and expand our theories related to ecology and evolution of organisms, and some intriguing insights are already beginning to emerge. For example, the detailed understanding of the molecular, genetic and developmental mechanisms of beak evolution that has arisen from studying Galapagos finches has been significantly advanced by studying beak evolution in the house finch Carpodacus mexicanus in response to novel urban food sources and its consequences for acoustic communication (Badyaev 2010, 2014). Thus, urban ecology has the potential to extend our understanding of extremely well-studied ecological and evolutionary problems.

Flow sensing is fundamental to both animals and robots for navigation, stability, and interaction with the environment. While animals achieve this through specialised mechanosensory structures, flow-guided autonomy in robotics remains underdeveloped due to the limitations of existing sensors, which often lack directional sensitivity, robustness, or scalability. To address this gap, we present a bioinspired, vision-based airflow sensing architecture that employs vertically suspended flexible filaments that respond passively to airflow, from which flow information is inferred using onboard computer vision. The sensor's utility was demonstrated on a quadruped robot, where it reliably detected flow speed and direction during both static and locomotion experiments. A mathematical model describing the aerodynamic and gravitational forces acting on the filaments was developed and experimentally validated, showing strong agreement with empirical data. The results highlight the potential of this novel sensing architecture in robotic applications. Beyond robotics, the sensor's low-cost and modular design makes it broadly applicable from scientific research and environmental monitoring to education and public engagement in flow-sensing principles.

The article deals with the question of linking two spheres: research practice (psychology as empirical science) and professional practice1 (psychology as a scientifically and ethically meaningful practical action: diagnostic and therapeutic). The author assumes that the most important task of psychologists is to create testable (in Popper’s sense) empirical theories. Only based on these can professional practice be built (here: clinical – diagnostic and therapeutic). The effectiveness of clinicians’ professional actions in the sphere of social practice is a derivative of the method of practical action: diagnostic and therapeutic, built on this knowledge. The author formulates a strong thesis that beyond the context of proven empirical theory, there is no sensible, and yet ethical, professional practice. The article consists of two parts. The first part deals with the methodological aspects of the relationship: empirical theory – testing of the theory – professional practice. It also applies to evidence-based assessment (EBA) and evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP). The clinician uses a variety of data in his/her (scientific and practical) work, which raises the problem of how to integrate these data. This is the second part of the article. The author distinguishes four levels of data integration: (1) construction of variables and the building of hypothetical relationships between them; (2) operationalisation of variables, i.e. the transmission of variables from level I of the empirical sense; (3) quantitative interpretation of empirical research – here the interpretative framework is the psychological test theory (or another tool used in the operationalisation procedure); (4) qualitative (clinical) interpretation developed on level III data – the psychological empirical theory here provides the interpretative framework. At each level, we are dealing with theories. The empirical data that emerge are indirectly brought forward and justified by these theories. These levels are somewhat dependent on each other. In other words, we are dealing with integration within each level and between levels.