Full-Scale Validation of Modified Pedestrian Dummy

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The evaluation of pedestrian safety performance of vehicles required by regulations and new car assessment programs (NCAPs) have been conducted. However, the behavior of a pedestrian in an actual car-pedestrian accident is complex. In order to investigate injuries to the pedestrian lower body, the biofidelity of the lower limb and the pelvis of a pedestrian dummy called the POLAR II had been improved in past studies to develop a prototype of the next generation dummy called the POLAR III. The biofidelity of the thigh and the leg of the POLAR III prototype has been evaluated by means of 3-point bending. However, the inertial properties of these parts still needed to be adjusted to match those of a human. The biofidelity of the pelvis of the POLAR III prototype has been evaluated in lateral compression. Although the experiment using PMHSs (Post Mortem Human Subjects) was conducted in dynamic condition, the dummy tests were performed only in quasi-static condition. Therefore, this study aimed to improve and further validate the lower limb and the pelvis of the pedestrian dummy to enhance assessment capabilities of injuries to these body regions. The femur and tibia solid shafts of the POLAR III prototype were modified to improve durability of the instrumentation. The modified thigh and leg of the POLAR III prototype consist of double-layered plastics shaft covered by the flesh. These parts were subjected to latero-medial 3-point bending. The isolated pelvis of the POLAR III prototype was subjected to dynamic lateral compression. The force-deflection curves of the modified leg, thigh and pelvis of the POLAR III prototype (except for iliac reaction force of pubic loading) were compared with those of the PMHS test results from a past study, and the biofidelity of these components was evaluated using the parameter proposed by a past study.</div></div>

Honda has been studying ways of improving vehicle design to reduce the severity of pedestrian injury. Full-scale tests using a pedestrian dummy are an important way to assess the aggressiveness of a vehicle to pedestrians. However, from test results, it is concluded that current pedestrian dummies have stiffer characteristics than post mortem human subjects (PMHS). Also, the dummy kinematics during a collision are different from that of a human body. Because of the limitations of current dummies, it was decided to develop a new pedestrian dummy. At the first stage of the project, a computer simulation model that represented the PMHS tests was developed. Joint characteristics obtained from the simulation model were used in building a new pedestrian dummy named Polar I. The advanced frontal crash test dummy, known as Thor, was selected as the base dummy. Modifications were made for the thorax, spine, knee, and other joints. Component tests were conducted to obtain and check the characteristics of each part. An initial series of full-scale tests was conducted, and the kinematics of the dummy were compared with PMHS test results.

<div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper refers to a numerical calculation method, in which the transition matrix method is employed. The method estimates torsional vibration amplitude of a crankshaft with a rubber damper by taking the dynamic characteristics of the rubber part into consideration.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Firstly, the rubber part is replaced with a three-elemental Maxwell model, which is determined by the results of static tests, such as stress relaxation test, creep test and static torsional test. The basic data used for the determination of the element values on the Maxwell model are obtained by these tests.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Secondly, the vibration system of a crankshaft with a rubber damper is replaced with a linear lumped model, in which the torsional stiffness and damping coefficient of the damper rubber part are decided by using the element values of the Maxwell model.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Lastly, the calculated results by the transition matrix method in the vibration model are compared with the experimental results and it is shown that the torsional vibration amplitude can approximately analysed by this method.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A more environmentally sound ELV disposal is presently discussed with the European Union directorates, the council of ministers and the European parliament. National plans or already existing legislation are in place in several countries like Germany. PU seating material is one of the key targets by legislators and environmental authorities for dismantling.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The reason for dismantling seats is a potential recycling or recovery for the PU seating material as it is one of the large plastic parts and can be relatively easily dismantled. A general broad investigation on the ecological and economical impact of this PU material has not been done as for many other parts like the fuel tank, which are presently considered for dismantling.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">EU legislation in preparation is calling for a reduction in landfill from ELV's from 25% by weight today, to 5% by 2015.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The position of the PU producing industry and the seat molders is presently to define what is the economic impact of dismantling seats to recover the PU cushions. A clear cost base calculation for the various routes to cope with the EU and national quota reducing landfill by 2015 to < 5 % of the vehicle is made for the ELV with regards to the subject of potential PU dismantling.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The two potential routes for PU seating could be either a mandatory dismantling with further use for recycling/recovery operations or a recovery with the rest of the plastics.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The lowest cost option for the disposal of an ELV in the future will be to use the traditional process of shredding. This operation could be followed by taking the automotive shredder residues (ASR) to a fuel substitution operation with or without any further ASR refining. Other favorable routes to deal with the ELV depend on regional circumstances with respect to existing infrastructure of collecting companies, shredders and potential users of today's or refined ASR. The demonstration of different routes to recycle/recover PU seating materials, the ELV in different geographical areas is part of ISOPA' s and Euro-Moulder's technical program.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The present quality of SR (shredder residue) does favor this option as fuel substitute, and efforts of the plastics industry are aimed at getting Municipal Solid Waste Combustion recognized as an official recovery route and have sufficient energy recovery capacities throughout Europe. The technical demonstration in large-scale facilities and the relatively lower cost of this route compared to other solutions are the reason. Municipal Solid Waste combustion (MSWC is today seen by most European environmental agencies as an indispensable part of integrated waste management because of the environmental performance of today 's state of the art equipment, but its status as a recovery option for ASR is still in discussion especially in Germany.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Refining of ASR to make a raw material or fuel will not be cost neutral. The price of fuel today is too low to warrant an upgrade to higher quality ASR without subsidy. This additional cost would increase the cost of ELV treatment compared to the previously mentioned route.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The dismantling of PU seating material requires a number of steps until the material is at the gate for a customer to use it as a fuel or raw material. Removal for use as fuel in cement kilns is not cost effective due to the low price of fuels today in the cement producing industry.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Viable chemical recycling routes for mixtures of PU materials from ELV's seats do not exist at present at sufficiently large scale.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">There are ongoing efforts on commercial scale in the Netherlands to dismantle seats. These activities in NL are subsidized by the first owner of the car and the money collected is used for dismantling, collection and mechanical recycling into rebonded foams. In other countries like Germany (D) a discussion within the industry and a request for subsidies is ongoing. Any kind of dismantling operation will require a subsidy to compensate for the loss a dismantler or recycler will occur under today's economic situation.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Market size for rebonded foam is not large enough in Europe for the amount of dismantled PU foam, as a substitute for scrap PU trims. Other outlets for PU foam like potential regrind into powder and use as filler are being evaluated but are not yet commercial.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Regulated and some unregulated emissions of a medium size non catalyst vehicle obtained with different formulations of unleaded fuels have been measured.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Among the unregulated pollutants, 1-3 butadiene, benzene, toluene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) have been considered because of their toxicological hazards [ <span class="xref">1</span> ]. The emission levels have been compared with the ones obtained in similar conditions using a leaded reference fuel.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Cold start Europe cycle and two not standard cycles have been used as basis of comparison for pollutants measurements.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The effect of a three way catalytic system, fitted on the same vehicle, on regulated and unregulated emissions has been also studied, evaluating the conversion efficiency for the different pollutants.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The same fuels have been tested in the same driving conditions on a small size passenger car too, equipped by the factory with catalyst and closed loop control system.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">It has been shown that benzene and toluene content in the exhaust depends on their original concentration in the fuel.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The performance of catalytic after-treatment system is satisfactory even if no closed loop control is provided.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Driving conditions play a fundamental role on regulated and unregulated emissions independently of the presence of an exhaust treatment device.</div>

<div class="section abstract"> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This Recommended Practice provides a procedure for measuring and documenting the aerodynamic performance in a full-scale wind tunnel of passenger vehicles, i.e., mass-produced cars and light-duty trucks intended primarily for individual consumers. Testing or numerical modeling of pre-production and/or reduced-scale models is outside the scope of this document. Aerodynamic <i>development</i> procedures, i.e., methods to improve or optimize aerodynamic performance, are also excluded.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">It is well-known that aerodynamic performance results depend significantly on vehicle content and loading, as well as the wind tunnel itself (type, scale, and simulation qualities of the wind tunnel). Publication of non-standard test results causes unnecessary additional development work and incorrect perception of a vehicle’s anticipated aerodynamic performance by government, academia, and the general public.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The intent of this document is to promote uniformity and traceability of published aerodynamic performance data acquired in a wind tunnel, thereby enhancing the public reputation and credibility of the aerodynamics discipline in the total vehicle development process.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Measurement of the aerodynamic performance according to this Recommended Practice requires a full-scale wind tunnel test on a production-ready, full-scale vehicle according to specifications for vehicle loading, content, and wind tunnel conditions.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The measurement and resulting documentation for a particular vehicle shall be reported only by the company that intends to produce the vehicle. Whenever there is an opportunity for interpretation of the document, a good faith effort shall be made to obtain the vehicle’s typical in-service performance and avoid finding the best possible performance under the best possible circumstances.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Use of and compliance with this Recommended Practice is voluntary; however, it is mandatory for those advertising or otherwise publishing aerodynamic performance as “measured according to SAE J2881.” Conversely, any advertised or otherwise published result carrying this or a substantially similar designation must have the necessary documentation accepted by and on file with the SAE in accordance with the procedures defined in this Recommended Practice.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"><span class="xref">Appendices B</span> and <span class="xref">C</span> contain the necessary submittal documents for compliance with this Recommended Practice. When a submittal is made, the chairman of the Road Vehicle Aerodynamics Forum Committee (RVAC) or his/her designee shall review the submittal for proper completion according to the requirements herein, but without consideration of the technical merit of the claimed performance. After the chairman’s review, SAE will maintain an electronic database of all submittals.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The database shall be available only to members and liasion members of the RVAC. Any RVAC member who retrieves information from the database shall do so with the understanding that the information is to be considered confidential within his or her company.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">In automobile design, a rear-engine layout mainly espoused for small entry-level cars and light commercial vehicles for three reasons - packaging, traction, and ease of manufacturing. The aim of this paper is to strategize cooling system of rear-mounted engine of a small gasoline car. Radiator and cooling fan packaged close to engine at rear of the car for simple packaging. Efficient thermal management ensured by robust overheat protection stratagem using EMS software.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">DFSS, a disciplined problem prevention approach that helps in achieving the most optimum design solution and provides improved and cost effective quality products; is used to finalize an optimum design based on the analysis of the various tests carried out as per DOE [<span class="xref">1</span>]. This paper is about designing a distinctive cooling system of a car having rear-mounted engine with rear radiator but front mounted HVAC system [<span class="xref">2</span>].</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Strategizing overheat protection for subject vehicle is crucial due to three critical reasons which tempt high probability of engine overheating. (1) The arrangement having HVAC system mounted at front requires lengthy coolant lines extending from engine (rear of the car) to the HVAC heater (front of the car). The underbody assembly of heater lines are prone to structural damage thus leading to overheating. (2) Lengthy coolant lines of HVAC heater system becomes critical as air prone to trap in the coolant system during coolant filling and de-aeration process leading to overheating. (3) In case of radiator fan failure, rear mounted engine compartment does not get enough surrounding air for cooling and will lead to overheating.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This final design provide compact packaging of coolant system, ensure better thermal management and maintain good aesthetics of the automobile. The serviceability of the engine i.e. filling of the coolant and process of de-aeration also simplified with the finalized design.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper also comprise a robust engine protection EMS (Engine Management System) function in case of overheat phenomenon. The strategy validated on fleet cars and it meets safety critical requirements to protect engine and critical components from damage. This novel FIVE LEVEL monitoring strategy ensures protection of vehicle and components in the event of cooling system failure.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The main objective of this work is to describe the design and testing of novel cam profiles, which are key for efficiency demonstration on a new class of internal combustion engine (ICE). A recuperated split cycle engine (RSCE) has unique demands for valve lift, duration and phasing when compared to a conventional 4-stroke. In particular, good control of the expander intake valve opening (IVO) appears to be necessary to achieve high efficiency.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Commercial computer programs available for valvetrains have been developed for conventional 4-stroke engines and, typically, these are focused on profile analysis rather than design. Often, the standards and recommended parameters are derived from historical 4-stroke data that may not fulfill the requirements of a new class of ICE, where boundary conditions have drastically changed.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In this paper, the cam profile requirements, functions, design, analysis and test results from a research and development (R&D) program of a heavy duty (HD) recuperated split cycle engine are reported. This included novelties in cam profile generation, technology and the materials used. This work is based on requirements, hypotheses and problem simplifications, supported by virtual validation, FEM analyses, spreadsheet calculations, component specifications and 1D simulations. Development has also been done by suppliers to satisfy the project requirements, alongside a compromise between technology selection and the pressing need to respect an extremely short time frame for component procurement.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Whilst this work refers to a specific engine development program, the methodology described in this paper has been more generally considered for the new class of ICE and can be successfully applied to other projects with common development targets (time to market, fuel efficiency and development costs).</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">During recent years the accident simulation program PCCRASH was developed, which allows to simulate the vehicles movement before, during and after the impact. As shown in several publications, the software allows to calculate the 3D movement of all involved vehicles. Within SAE 1999-01-0444 a new coupling interface of PC-CRASH and the software MADYMO, developed by TNO in the Netherlands was published.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">During last year's publication only few validation cases, mainly related to rear end impacts could be demonstrated.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In the mean while several well documented tests have been performed to validate the performance of this model also in frontal and lateral collisions as well as rollovers.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">A special series of sled tests has been performed to study the movement of the passenger during and after the collision for various impact angles. These tests were performed on an active sled at various test speeds.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Regarding rollover a set of full scale tests was performed where a volunteer stunt driver was overturning the vehicles under various conditions. Mainly low speed rolls (app. 20 mph) were investigated. In parallel a standard Hybrid III dummy was sitting beside the stunt driver. The movements of the vehicle, dummy and driver were documented through a high speed video and onboard camera as well as acceleration measurements. This test also demonstrated the big difference in the movement between Human and Hybrid III dummy due to the active movement of the human driver and the long duration of the roll over.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper discusses the numerical results compared to the test results. For the sled tests Dummy kinematics as well as accelerations were compared. One major emphasis was set on the influence of the crash pulse, which cannot be derived in PC-CRASH. In this way the paper demonstrates the possibilities as well as the limitations of the numerical model.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">In recent years, internal-combustion engines have been required to satisfy various performance standards against emission regulations and fuel-efficiency targets. To this end, accurate measurement of piston temperature under various engine operating conditions is important.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Some studies reported the use of wireless methods to confirm the reliability of the measurement system at the highest engine speed and create a piston temperature map under all operating conditions. However, previous case studies only considered relatively large displacement engines, and the advantage of wireless methods—a high degree of freedom for design—was not used. In terms of engine operating conditions, few cases focus on the piston to cylinder wall clearance during engine warm-up conditions. Thus, wireless methods are still space to use their features.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In this study, we develop and implement a telemetry-type method for a motorcycle engine, which has smaller displacement and is therefore more restrictive relative to measurement system design than past case studies. The temperature distribution in the entire piston is measured, considering the temperature distribution of a cylinder bore wall surface during the period between a cold start and the completion of the warm-up. Temperature measurement data are continuously obtained under transient operating conditions. In addition, the measurement results are input to a model that simulates piston behavior to improve the calculation results of piston slap noise.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Fuel efficiency and clean combustion engine versus high engine performance - which will increase up to factor 10 in the next 5 years - with less engine displacement are driving more complex engine control systems in today's and future vehicles. The challenge is not only to design a perfect engine, but also to incorporate the right semiconductors. Beside this demand on high sophisticated electronics the demand on cost reduction - especially for small cars - is one driving factor for a smart partitioning.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Infineon offers sensors, microcontrollers and power semiconductors for today's engine management platforms and therefore owns the right technologies to manufacture those devices. This opens up the possibility to integrate more functionality in less devices as in today's partitioning or</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ul class="list disc"> <li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">to define electronics to simplify complex control strategies and</div></li> <li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">to optimize the performance of each device.</div></li> </ul> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper gives an overview about semiconductors for current engine management systems and will present an outlook how smart partitioning satisfies the increasing demands on system performance and increased functionality but can reduce system costs, too.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The microcellular foam injection molding process for thermoplastic materials provides design flexibility and cost savings opportunities not found in conventional injection molding. This process allows for plastic part design with material wall thickness optimized for functionality.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The combination of density reduction and design for functionality can result in material and weight savings of up to 20%. With the correct equipment configuration, mold design, and processing conditions, these microcellular voids are uniform in size and distribution. The use of microcellular foam molding provides significant reductions in cycle time, material consumption, injection pressure, and clamp tonnage.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In this work, a physical foam molding process, MuCell, is applied to a polypropylene (PP) composite. The MuCell injection molding process involves the highly controlled use of gas in supercritical state, as the physical blowing agent, to create millions of micron-sized voids in thin wall molded parts (less than 3mm).</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The results show that a weight reduction can be achieved without significant degradation in mechanical properties, such as stiffness and impact resistance. MuCell also contributes to faster cooling from the melt as well as the elimination of pack and hold phase, which both result in shorter injection molding cycle times and reduced warpage.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Once material tests have been completed, final part tests will also be performed, to validate established design specifications. These results presented here indicate that microcellular foam molding technology has good potential to be applied to interior parts of vehicles, contributing to weight reduction and productivity increase.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Metal pickup is a phenomenon that can be observed during dynamic braking with automotive disc brakes. Hard metallic particle agglomerations embedded in the friction materials rubbing surface can lead to severe disc scoring, accelerated wear and deterioration of the friction surface of either brake disc or brake pad. Such kind of surface conditions are also suspected for generating brake squeal, even if a direct root cause effect had not been proven so far. Disc scoring effects have been reported for all kinds of applications, reaching from small passenger cars up to commercial vehicles as well as railroad brakes. Although such phenomena are known since long, they still appear causing problems in brake systems of today.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Some recent papers have described the effect and mentioned preferable conditions for the appearance of metal pickup. Specific procedures have been proposed for provocation of the effect to allow a better and more systematic investigation of the influencing parameters. Observations on results of such experiments were described and several working hypotheses put forward with influences going back to the brake rotors metallurgy and surface finish as well as to the friction materials ingredients.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper gives an overview to the actual situation of the research and developments about the effect of metal pickup generation. An investigation of a multitude of MPU cases from real car driving is used to cluster and structure the principal phenomena and discuss the various aspects. The discussion of the experimental results and the previous findings, lead to a new experimental set up which is proposed for further investigation and future works. This shall lead to a better way of investigating and understanding the influencing parameters within the brake system, rotor and brake lining for their effect to the phenomena.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">For cold gas Inflator, high refinement of ultimate pressure load forecast of inflator housing is one key of Inflator development. For inflator housing hydro-burst test ultimate load calculation, nonlinear finite element software for high precision results. At beginning, the material parameters of inflator housing for simulation is correlated. The FEA material model adopts the stress-strain data from uniaxial tensile experiments. Considering the geometrical nonlinearity resulting from large deformation as well as material nonlinearity from plastic hardening, the whole tensile process from tensile deformation to failure of the specimen is simulated. Numerical results show that the simulation is appropriate to predict the entire deformation process, and simulation results of ultimate tensile load, X-shape distribution of concentrated instability zone, the fracture location and inclined angle all agrees with that of test results.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">After finishing the correlation of uniaxial tensile test and getting accurate material parameters of inflator housing, the ultimate breakage load of inflator housing under hydro-burst test is calculated by FEA software. The discrepancy between FEA calculation and real test of inflator housing breakage pressure was 3.6%, and the deformation and failure position of inflator housing were in good agreement with the test results also. At the same time, the change rules of stress and strain in each direction at the key positions of uniaxial tensile test and hydro-burst test are summarized, then a method to judge the fracture strain according to the stress change trend is proposed. The judged fracture strain by the method corresponds to the test results. The simulation and test results show that the analysis method used in this paper can obtain the ultimate failure load and fracture strain of the inflator housing with high precision.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The current development trends for high performance two-stroke engines have been identified in raising combustion pressures and therefore higher cylinder temperatures [<span class="xref">1</span>] [<span class="xref">2</span>]. Thus, the requirements on piston assembly are increased in such a way that pistons based on aluminium-silicon alloys – as most commonly used in high performance two-stroke engines - reach their application limit. A suitable solution has been shown by research work such as that conducted by Mahle König, by using a piston consisting of different materials. With this approach, the higher stressed piston crown consists of steel, while the lower stressed piston skirt is made out from aluminium. Previous basic examinations showed the high potential of the hybrid piston concept in terms of pressure and temperature increase, while also showing the need for a temperature-stable and pressure-tight joint between crown and skirt.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper will focus on the development of two novel hybrid-piston concepts, where the piston crown and the piston skirt are connected in different ways. The first hybrid concept presented uses the piston pin in order to realize a plugconnection between piston crown and piston skirt (a conjunction hereafter known as <b>plug-connection</b>). A second approach is a material joint between piston crown and piston skirt, with the result that the two parts are integrally joined to one another (a conjunction hereafter known as <b>multimaterial joint</b>). During the predevelopment phase the design and dimensioning of the hybrid concepts were carried out with reference to mechanical and thermal operation loads, as well as joining aspects.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">A specific joining concept using a bimetal transition joint was created, along with the development of a special adapted laser beam welding procedure. The multi-material joint properties were further verified by FEM simulations as well as by mechanical and thermal tests. Finally, hybrid-piston prototypes were produced in time for first bench tests. In this paper the design concept of the hybrid piston and the joining technology will be presented, along with the results of FEM simulations and material testing.</div></div>