Fynbos

Societal Impact StatementHuman‐caused habitat destruction and transformation is resulting in a cascade of impacts to biological diversity, of which arguably the most fundamental is species extinctions. The Global Conservation Consortia (GCC) are a means to pool efforts and expertise across national boundaries and between disciplines in the attempt to prevent such losses in focal plant groups. GCC Erica coordinates an international response to extinction threats in one such group, the heaths, or heathers, of which hundreds of species are found only in South Africa's spectacularly diverse Cape Floristic Region.SummaryEffectively combating the biodiversity crisis requires coordinated conservation efforts. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) and numerous partners have established Global Conservation Consortia (GCC) to collaboratively develop and implement comprehensive conservation strategies for priority threatened plant groups. Through these networks, institutions with specialised collections and staff can leverage ongoing work to optimise impact for threatened plant species. The genus Erica poses a challenge similar in scale to that of the largest other GCC group, Rhododendron, but almost 700 of the around 800 known species of Erica are concentrated in a single biodiversity hotspot, the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) of South Africa. Many species are known to be threatened, suffering the immediate impacts of habitat destruction, invasive species, changes in natural fire regimes and climate change. Efforts to counter these threats face general challenges: disproportionate burden of in situ conservation falling on a minority of the community, limited knowledge of species‐rich groups, shortfalls in assessing and monitoring threat, lack of resources for in situ and limitations of knowledge for ex situ conservation efforts and in communicating the value of biological diversity to a public who may never encounter it in the wild. GCC Erica brings together the world's Erica experts, conservationists and the botanical community, including botanic gardens, seed banks and organisations in Africa, Madagascar, Europe, the United States, Australia and beyond. We are collaboratively pooling our unique sets of skills and resources to address these challenges in working groups for conservation prioritisation, conservation in situ, horticulture, seed banking, systematic research and outreach.

Vietnam belongs to one of the most well-known global biodiversity hotspots. However, its biodiversity is being threatened by multiple factors such as rapid growth of the human population, habitat destruction, overexploitation, and climate change. To better prioritize conservation measures for Vietnam’s mammal fauna, this study attempts to identify the threat status, level of endemism, and protected area coverage for approximately 329 recognized taxa. In addition, ex situ conservation measures are investigated by analyzing zoo databases. Our results show that as many as 112 mammal species (~34%) in Vietnam are officially listed as threatened, 36 (~11%) are country endemics, and nine (~3%) are micro-endemic. Nearly all threatened species are currently covered by protected areas, except for two species of high conservation importance, i.e., the micro-endemic Murina harpioloides (Chiroptera) and the threatened Lepus sinensis (Lagomorpha). Our results also suggest that such areas as Hoang Lien Range, northeastern Vietnam, and the central and southern Annamite Mountains require more conservation attention, as they harbor a high number of endemic species. Analyses of the Zoological Information Management System reveal that roughly 60% (67 species) of threatened species are currently kept in zoos (ex situ) across the world, while none of the species listed as “Data Deficient” are currently represented in any ex situ program. Up to 66% of 89 species kept in zoos show a good number of breeding successes in the past 12 months. It is recommended that future conservation efforts focus on unprotected threatened mammals and on evaluating the threat status for “Data Deficient” species. Additionally, the existing protected area system's effectiveness should be improved by creating corridors to provide connectivity for highly mobile and widely distributed mammal species.

The high-mountain ecosystems of Central Asia consist of very rich biodiversity with unique plant communities and many endemic species. High human pressure and long drought periods due to global warming have caused habitat destruction in these areas and a parallel increase in the number of endangered species. In Uzbekistan, the number of red listed plant species has risen in the last 30 years, from 163 in 1984 to 324 in 2009. Among those red-listed species are 23 species in the Lamiaceae family. The aim of this study was to estimate the current populations of red-listed species Salvia submutica. This species is endemic to the Nuratau ridge, and it is growing under climatic changes and human pressure. We found two populations of this species in the Nuratau ridge. For each population, we measured the plant density and determined the population spectrum. We also describe the plant community where each population grew. At all sites, the population density was low, with most populations being classified as mature with centered ontogenetic structure. These results indicated this species might, in the near future, become extinct in the wild.

The Mediterranean Sea is a marine biodiversity hot spot. Here we combined an extensive literature analysis with expert opinions to update publicly available estimates of major taxa in this marine ecosystem and to revise and update several species lists. We also assessed overall spatial and temporal patterns of species diversity and identified major changes and threats. Our results listed approximately 17,000 marine species occurring in the Mediterranean Sea. However, our estimates of marine diversity are still incomplete as yet—undescribed species will be added in the future. Diversity for microbes is substantially underestimated, and the deep-sea areas and portions of the southern and eastern region are still poorly known. In addition, the invasion of alien species is a crucial factor that will continue to change the biodiversity of the Mediterranean, mainly in its eastern basin that can spread rapidly northwards and westwards due to the warming of the Mediterranean Sea. Spatial patterns showed a general decrease in biodiversity from northwestern to southeastern regions following a gradient of production, with some exceptions and caution due to gaps in our knowledge of the biota along the southern and eastern rims. Biodiversity was also generally higher in coastal areas and continental shelves, and decreases with depth. Temporal trends indicated that overexploitation and habitat loss have been the main human drivers of historical changes in biodiversity. At present, habitat loss and degradation, followed by fishing impacts, pollution, climate change, eutrophication, and the establishment of alien species are the most important threats and affect the greatest number of taxonomic groups. All these impacts are expected to grow in importance in the future, especially climate change and habitat degradation. The spatial identification of hot spots highlighted the ecological importance of most of the western Mediterranean shelves (and in particular, the Strait of Gibraltar and the adjacent Alboran Sea), western African coast, the Adriatic, and the Aegean Sea, which show high concentrations of endangered, threatened, or vulnerable species. The Levantine Basin, severely impacted by the invasion of species, is endangered as well.This abstract has been translated to other languages (File S1).

The island of St Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean has a rich endemic flora, with 10 endemic genera and 45 recognised endemic species. However, populations of most endemic species have undergone dramatic reductions or extinction due to over-exploitation, habitat destruction and competition from invasive species. Consequently, endemic species are likely to have lost genetic variation, in some cases to extreme degrees. Here, the entire extant wild populations and all planted trees in seed orchards, of two critically endangered species in the endemic genus Commidendrum (Asteraceae), C. rotundifolium and C. spurium, were sampled to assess levels of genetic variation and inbreeding. Six new microsatellite loci were developed from next-generation sequence data, and a total of 190 samples were genotyped. Some seed orchard trees contained alleles from both wild C. rotundifolium and C. spurium indicating they could be hybrids and that some backcrossing may have occurred. Some of these trees were more similar to C. rotundifolium than C. spurium both genetically and morphologically. Importantly, allelic variation was detected in the putative hybrids that was not present in wild material. C. rotundifolium is represented by just two individuals one wild and one planted and C. spurium by seven, therefore the seed orchard trees comprise an important part of the total remaining genetic diversity in the genus Commidendrum.

For centuries the Great Lakes have been treated callously These five magnificent lakes—Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario—located along the eastern half of the Canadian–U.S. border have served as a virtual sewer catching waste from industry, agriculture, commercial shipping, and households. Their natural barriers to other water systems have been breached, exposing indigenous ecosystems to aggressive invaders. They’ve been used as a highway for colossal ships that require deepened and broadened channels to crisscross the lakes, and that import exotic species along with their intended cargo. At times it could seem that this long-suffering water system will see no end of indignities. But recent renewed focus on the unique and tremendous value of this resource by governments and communities surrounding the lakes may turn the tide of neglect and abuse. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Great Lakes contain 21% of the Earth’s and about 84% of United States’ surface freshwater. That’s about 22,000 cubic kilometers of water spread over 94,250 square miles. Each year the lakes provide more than 6.7 million cubic meters of water to municipalities and quadruple that to industry. They support a commercial fishery worth about $13 million as of 2002, according to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and a sport-fishing industry of nearly $1.3 billion as of 2001, according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Today about 25% of Canadians and 10% of Americans—a total of more than 33 million people—live in the Great Lakes watershed. “The whole industrial expansion that took place during the ‘robber baron’ era [of the late nineteenth century] expanded along the shores of the Great Lakes,” says Deborah Swackhamer, a University of Minnesota professor of environmental chemistry. Soon ships were carrying iron ore, coal, and limestone from mines and quarries to steel mills and later steel to factories and products to markets. In addition to serving as a transportation system, the lakes provided a place to discharge manufacturing by-products. Unlike a sewer, however, whatever enters this lake system stays awhile. On average, less than 1% of the five lakes’ water turns over each year, which means that many pollutants stay in place. They settle in sediments, adhere to other surfaces, become suspended in water, and bioaccumulate in organisms. Similarly, with the exception of migratory birds, most wildlife in the basin spend their entire life cycle in or near the lakes. As a result of all these stressors, the lakes now house fish that are dangerous to eat, water that can be unsafe to drink, anoxic “dead zones”—areas in which virtually no plants or animals can survive—that appear each summer like clockwork, and an ever-growing population of unwanted species from other parts of the world.

The growing human population is responsible for a massive decline in species, biodiversity, and ecosystems across the globe. If we are to significantly slow these losses, the attention and resources devoted to individual causes should be commensurate with the magnitude of their contribution to the problem. The purpose of this study was to determine the relative magnitude of five major threats to species identified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as threatened with extinction. Specifically, we analyzed the entire IUCN Red List database to determine the percentage of threatened species affected by overexploitation, climate change, pollution, habitat destruction, and invasive species, diseases, and genes. We also randomly sampled a portion of the database to estimate the percentage of species for which each threat was the dominant threat placing them at risk of extinction. Of the 20,784 species for which data were available, 88.3% were impacted by habitat destruction, 26.6% by overexploitation, 25% by invasives, 18.2% by pollution, and 16.8% by climate change and weather. Focusing on dominant threats, the percentage of species for which a given threat was the main factor pushing them toward extinction was as follows: habitat destruction 71.3%, overexploitation 7.4%, invasives 6.8%, pollution 4.7%, climate change, and weather 1.8%. Regardless of how percentages are calculated, habitat destruction threatens more species than all other categories combined, climate change the fewest. From the perspective of species and biodiversity conservation, these data suggest that a significant change in global environmental priorities is needed. Habitat destruction should become a greater focus of global environmental efforts and receive the attention and resources appropriate to the extraordinary magnitude of its impact. Moreover, while it is important to address all environmental problems, given the disproportionate impact habitat destruction has on species, care should be taken to avoid solutions to other problems that exacerbate this destruction.

Pollination studies in East Asia have been developing rapidly in recent decades. East Asia may provide important information on many aspects of plant-pollinator interactions because of the rich fauna and flora and highly heterogeneous environments that occur there. In this review, plant-pollinator interactions in East Asia were summarized. Bumblebees are important pollinators of many plant species in East Asia, as well as in Europe and North America. Native honeybees may also have important roles in pollination in East Asia. Bird pollination and hawkmoth pollination may be less common in East Asia than in North America. Geographic variation in pollination interactions is expected because several types of pollinators are rare or absent in some habitats or geographic regions. For example, specialized nectar-feeding vertebrates like sunbirds and pteropodid bats are absent from most of East Asia except for some areas in its southern part. Opportunistic nectar-feeding vertebrates may have important roles in pollination where specialized nectar-feeding vertebrates are absent. Human impacts on plant pollinator interactions are understudied in this region. However, climate change, habitat degradation, and invasive species may have negative impacts on plant-pollinator interactions and thus plant reproductive success there. The information available on the plant-pollinator interactions in East Asia is still limited because many plant and pollinator taxa and many types of habitats are understudied.

A fiery past: A comparison of glacial and contemporary fire regimes on the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain, Cape Floristic Region

Invasive species pose a significant threat to biodiversity, with domestic gardens being one of the primary introduction pathways for invasive terrestrial plants. Climate change is predicted to exacerbate biological invasions in the northern regions of the globe. Despite their ecological importance, private domestic gardens remain understudied in invasion biology research. This thesis examines invasive plant species in Swedish domestic gardens, combining ecological inventories with investigations of garden owners’ knowledge, values, and management practices, with the aim of developing evidence-based guidelines for communicating with domestic garden owners about invasive species. Methods vary from field inventories, expert workshops, semi-structured interviews and a postal survey disseminated to garden owners in three diverse bioclimatic areas of Sweden. The results from a garden case study revealed that domestic gardens can contain a great diversity of species. They showed high compositional uniqueness and no correlation between the number of invasive species and garden size. A postal survey, directed at garden owners in the biosphere reserves Voxnadalen, Lake Vänern Archipelago and Mount Kinnekulle, and Blekinge Archipelago, revealed several knowledge gaps. Many of the respondents were unable to identify common invasive plant species, and most were uncertain of how climate change can be expected to impact invasive species. Garden owners prioritise aesthetics, hardiness, habitat suitability and biodiversity support over the species’ geographical origin when selecting plants for their gardens. Personal experience of biodiversity loss in their surroundings, which respondents attributed to invasive species, was associated with a significantly higher likelihood of having undertaken management actions. Traditional management methods like hand weeding and digging were most commonly used and were perceived as effective. In addition, regional differences in responses highlighted the need for locally adapted communication. The results enabled the identification of evidence-based communication needs to guide communicators at national, regional, and local levels regarding what information to include in their messaging.

Background. Natural ecosystems of the Ukrainian Carpathians have been signi­ficantly transformed during the last few years due to the impact of climate factors and an increased activity of nature restoration processes. The study of the influence of the external environ­mental factors on populations of the herbaceous plant species is particularly topical for the high-mountain ecosystems. As a result of gradual restoration of native plants, specific changes occur in the structural and spatial organization of populations of many herbaceous plant species. Thus, considering the increased climate changes and regenera­tive activity, the assessment of the present condition of the populations of herbaceous plant species, their regenerative ability, response to changing environmental conditions and individual peculiarities of performance in the altered environmental conditions are important. Methods. The conventional stationary and route-field methods were applied in order to determine changes in the structural organization of high-mountain plant populations and their regenerative ability. The initial diagnostic parameters of the populations’ condition include the individual growth peculiarities and the nature of dynamic trends under the changed environmental conditions. During the ontogenetic development of plants, the most important changes occur within the generative phase that ensures the rege­nera­tion and self-maintenance of populations by means of seeds; those changes are a significant indicative feature. The long-term observations of different types of plant communities were applied; these included the records of the main parameters and characteristic features at permanent test sites. The transects are located in the alpine, subalpine and upper forest belts of the Ukrainian Carpathians within 1000–2000 m a.s.l. altitudinal range. The study comprises such behavioral features of the species populations as phenological (intensity phenophase, flowering rhythmics), demographic (number of individuals, spatial differentiation), reproductive (generative reproduction, seed productivity), etc., which enable the determination of their adaptation and ability to exist under the changed environmental conditions. Results. The continuous monitoring of different high-mountain plant aggregations showed that in some cases the number of species which are distinguished by active regenerative strategy aimed at further extension of the habitat is growing, while in other cases the species demonstrated the opposite trend resulting from their inability to adapt to changing habitat conditions. It has been determined that the vegetative development of the populations of high-mountain plant species is closely related to temperature conditions which influence phenology, dynamics of the numbers of individuals and the nature of their reproduction. A significant influence of warming on the processes of seasonal development of populations and flowering abundance is evidenced by their increased number and migration to much higher hypsometric levels of the high-mountain zone. The increased ability to generative reproduction contributes to the dissemination of seeds and formation of new population loci Valeriana simplicifolia, V. transsilvanica, Silene dioica, Astrantia major, Doronicum carpaticum, Euphorbia carniolica, etc. in favourable micro-habitats at significantly higher hypsometric levels of the high-mountain zone (1600–2000 m a.s.l.). Another natural factor of changes in populations of herbaceous plant species is the impact of restoration succesions in different types of plant communities. These changes are usually accompanied by increased shading and crowding of vegetation due to the spread of more competitive tree and shrub species as well as adventive species of tall herbaceous plants. It refers mostly to grassland species that need open sites for the effective population recruitment. Radical changes can be observed in the structural organization of the populations of herbaceous plants species due to an increased cenotic activity of more competitive species. Such changes reduce the regenerative ability of the populations of herbaceous plants species and trigger their fragmentation. Thus, the change of ecological and cenotic conditions of various plant communities along the elevation gradient of the highlands predetermines different charac­teristic features of the populations of herbaceous plant species and their unequal spatial differentiation. Conclusions. It has been determined that present natural processes occurring in the populations of herbaceous plant species of the high-mountain zone controversially influence their regenerative ability and the nature of changes in their structural organization. The dynamics of populations in each separate case is defined by the influence of natural and climate changes and their association with particular plant communities along the elevation gradient of the high-mountain zone. The multi-year dynamics of the numbers of generative individuals represents their regenerative ability in populations and dependence on weather conditions. The important feature of active regeneration of the populations is the development of their local foci in favorable microhabitats at significantly higher hypsometric levels of the high-mountain zone, in particular, the alpine and the upper margin of the alpine. Occurrence of new populations loci is indicative of their ability to reproduce and survive. In some cases, the dynamic trends in populations are accompanied by an increased number of individuals and extension of their habitats, while in other cases, trends are the opposite, which is caused by a decreased number of individuals and their degradation. The processes which are observed during the regeneration of species populations are related to their ascending extension to various hypsometric levels, as well as the strengthening of the positions of the populations of tree and shrub layer species and adventive representatives of tall herbaceous plants which are peculiar to lower layers. Significant overgrowth processes, which result in gradual exclusion of herbaceous plant species typical of meadow communities aggregations, are observed in the habitats of the populations of many types of herbaceous plants and at the upper margin of the forest and subalpine layers. Thus, the changes in ecological and cenotic conditions of various plant communities along the elevation gradient of the highlands predetermines different characteristic features of the populations of herbaceous plant species and their unequal spatial differentiation.

Acclimation effects on thermal tolerances of springtails from sub-Antarctic Marion Island: Indigenous and invasive species

Extinction in the Anthropocene.

Hunting for a Solution

In a world where heightened airport security is the norm, Australia and New Zealand might seem like a parallel universe. Dogs patrol airport aisles, sniffing not for illegal drugs, but for wayward fruits and vegetables. While the luggage of outgoing passengers may be X-rayed for weapons, incoming visitors have their suitcases scanned for any kind of biological material. You can be required to surrender your shoes, not because they might contain explosives, but because you neglected to clean them off after hiking in some foreign rural area. The security in question is biosecurity—protection against incoming exotic species—and at these checkpoints, no packet of garden seed is too innocent to be seized. Both countries have powerful incentives for such stringent enforcement. Although Australia and New Zealand are highly urbanized societies, their economies feature a significant agricultural sector that is exceptionally vulnerable to the ravages of invasive species. More recently, though, many observers are adding the prospect of human health issues to the toll exacted by exotics. In fact, the gauntlet found at these countries’ international airports is just the most obvious aspect of how seriously local authorities and scientists regard the issue of biosecurity. Government policies and academic institutions regularly adopt a unique focus on the way in which plants and animals cross national boundaries, a perspective that may look downright xenophobic at first glance. Nevertheless, the experience of Australia and New Zealand can provide a valuable example to parts of the world that treat their boundaries in a more casual fashion, at least from a biological point of view. Accomplishments in these countries can offer important lessons to any country that must confront the combined impact of rising volumes of international trade and shifting climate patterns.