Gender and Performance in Computer Science

Despite great effort in research and teaching as well as in raising women’s quotas in the public sector and in enterprises, a gender gap in computer science can still be observed. The reasons are manifold, including the lack of interest of girls because of existing stereotypes of male nerds, misconceptions in the field of computer science, and concrete differences in students’ self-concept and performance. Girls do not choose schools or studies in the field of computer science because working on computers or coding is unattractive to them. Research shows poorer performance, missing interest, and lower self-concept for girls in secondary computing education as well as a high dropout rate of female students in computer science courses at the bachelor’s level. Software development exams contribute to those high dropout rates, and women often choose a different subject or even stop their university education altogether. This leads to fewer female employees in the field of computer science, and this situation calls for special measures at several levels. The current paper provides an overview of the initiatives of our university that aim to address several aspects of the gender gap. The programs offered aim to (1) increase interest in computer science and recruit (highly) gifted girls for our talent programs, (2) recruit and support female bachelor’s and master’s students in computer science, and (3) redesign programming courses and teaching materials to reduce the gender gap in performance and support, especially for female students. This study also describes a cyber tutoring program in which highly gifted girls between 13 and 16 years collaborate with and are supervised by female role models in higher positions in STEM. The evaluation results gained in the first year of this case study are promising and suggest that the extension and further development of the program would be advantageous.

We examine factors contributing to the gender gap in employment in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) among men and women with bachelor’s degrees in computer science and engineering, the two largest and most male-dominated STEM fields. Data come from the National Science Foundation’s (NSF) Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System (SESTAT) from 1995 to 2008. Different factors are associated with persistence in STEM jobs among computer science and engineering degree holders. Conditional on receiving a degree in computer science, women are 14 percentage points less likely to work in STEM than their male counterparts. Controlling for demographic and family characteristics did little to change this gender gap. Women with degrees in engineering are approximately 8 percentage points less likely to work in STEM than men, although about half of this gap is explained by observed differences between men and women. We document a widening gender gap in STEM employment in computer science, but this gender gap narrows across college cohorts among those with degrees in engineering. Among recent computer science graduates, the gender gap in STEM employment for white, Hispanic, and black women relative to white men is even larger than for older graduates. Gender and race gaps in STEM employment for recent cohorts of engineering graduates are generally small, though younger Asian women and men no longer have an employment advantage relative to white men. Our results suggest that a one-size-fits-all approach to increasing women’s representation in the most male-dominated STEM fields may not work.

The paper compares the research performance in computer science of four major Western countries, India and China, based on the data abstracted from INSPEC database during the period 1993–2002. A total of 9,632 computer science papers recorded in INSPEC database were used for the comparison. The findings indicate that, on the one hand, the number of papers produced in China has considerably increased in the past few years. Particularly, in recent years, China occupies a remarkable high position in terms of counts of papers indexed by the INSPEC database. On the other hand, Chinese scientists preferred to publish in domestic journals and proceedings and shares of SCI-papers to the total journal papers for China have still remained the lowest. This indicates that the research activities of Chinese scientists in computer science are still rather “local” and suffer from a low international visibility. Various scientometric indicators, such as Normalized Impact Factor, ratio of papers in high quality journals are further adopted to analyze research performance and diverse finding are obtained. Nevertheless, for these surrogate indicators, China has optimistically achieved great progress, characterized with “low level of beginning and high speed of developing”. The policy implication of the findings lies in that China, as well as other less developed countries in science, can earn relative competitive advantages in some new emerging or younger disciplines such as computer science by properly using catch-up strategy.

The global emphasis on addressing gender disparities in education has highlighted the importance of equitable academic achievement for policymakers, scholars, and the public. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have incorporated gender equity, emphasising the ongoing challenge of ensuring equal access to quality education worldwide. In Cambodia, traditionally a male-dominated society, a notable shift has been observed: female students are now surpassing their male counterparts in school enrolment and academic performance. This reversal has sparked significant public interest, prompting this research to investigate the underlying reasons for gender disparities in academic success. The study aims to identify the factors influencing students’ academic achievements overall and to explore the specific factors contributing to the unequal academic success between male and female students. To achieve these objectives, the study employed a mixed-method approach, adopting a convergent parallel mixed-methods design. This involved the simultaneous collection and comparison of qualitative and quantitative data to identify notable patterns. In the qualitative strand, interviews were conducted with school directors and teachers, and focus group discussions (FGDs) were held with students. The quantitative strand involved surveys administered to students, teachers and school directors at the sampled schools. The qualitative data were analysed using thematic coding, deriving themes from both the literature review and emergent patterns during the coding process. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics. Additionally, a validation workshop held in October 2023, involving 36 teachers and 20 school principals and deputy principals, provided a platform to present preliminary findings, solicit feedback, and validate the results and policy recommendations. The study revealed the multi-faceted factors shaping students’ academic achievements from the perspectives of the participants. Individual student attributes, such as effective study habits, academic dedication, and regular attendance, emerged as crucial determinants of academic performance. However, these individual factors were intricately linked with familial, peer, and societal influences. Notably, students with poor study habits and disciplinary issues often came from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds where parental oversight was minimal, granting children greater autonomy and freedom. Financial constraints and limited emotional support within low-income households contributed to absenteeism and a lack of commitment among students, while household responsibilities impeded their academic engagement, resulting in subpar performance. Furthermore, inadequacies in instructional delivery and extra-curricular support within school settings exacerbated these challenges. Some teachers, constrained by time, prioritised content delivery over practical exercises, necessitating supplementary private tuition—a financial burden for economically marginalised families. Additionally, the lack of strict enforcement of disciplinary measures enabled tardiness and absenteeism among students, compounded by educators’ dual commitments to private tutoring. The promotion of underperforming students to subsequent grade levels exacerbated the academic attainment gap, as students lacking foundational knowledge struggled with their lessons. Peer influence and technological distractions also significantly affected student learning. In exploring the superior academic performance of female students relative to their male counterparts, similar patterns emerged. However, a key distinction is that male students’ behaviours were more easily influenced by family, peers, school, and societal expectations. For instance, some male students engaged in heavy economic activities, which exhausted them and hindered their learning. Boys were also more likely to engage in social vices and spend substantial time on sports activities that were not part of school extra-curricular programs, leading to school tardiness and absenteeism. Based on these findings, the study suggests several policy recommendations to mitigate gender disparities in academic achievements. First, proactive involvement from parents, local authorities, and schools is imperative to counteract negative societal and peer influences, particularly affecting boys. Mitigating the availability and promotion of substances like alcohol and caffeinated beverages in close proximity to schools requires joint efforts among stakeholders. Second, while acknowledging the benefits of technology in education, schools must develop mechanisms to monitor and direct students’ technological engagement towards constructive learning and take measures to restrict non-educational usage. Third, expanding sports-related extra-curricular activities can diminish the likelihood of unsupervised activities that lead to unintended adverse outcomes. Initiatives to establish sports clubs, organise inter-school competitions and promote structured sports programs can harmonise academic and athletic endeavours, fostering holistic development. Fourth, ensuring consistent enforcement of discipline and heightened accountability within schools is important to keep students focused on their academic obligations and minimise dropout rates. This can be done by empowering school disciplinary committees and enhancing communication between schools and parents concerning attendance and conduct. Last, addressing financial constraints through need-based scholarships and support services is critical, especially for boys compelled to engage in labour to support their families. Providing access to tutoring and study groups for underperforming students can help bridge academic gaps and promote equitable educational outcomes. In conclusion, addressing the gender gap in academic performance requires a comprehensive approach that involves parents, educators, and policymakers. By implementing targeted policies and practices, Cambodia can continue to enhance educational outcomes for all students, ensuring that both boys and girls have equal opportunities to succeed academically.

This article offers the account of an experiment using a pretest and posttest design of a <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">$3\mathrm{x}2\mathrm{x}3$</tex> factorial matrix representing the three levels of hypermedia utilization modes: Experimental group I (individual with Hypermedia software); Experimental group II (group and Teacher with Hypermedia software); and Control. The content of instruction was structured to accommodate individual and collaborative learning. Coeducational schools were sampled and gender information was obtained to be examined as a critical factor to assess technological teaching approaches. T-test analysis was used repeatedly to pass value judgment on certain elements of students' engagement in terms of interest of students with respect to male and female students. This study reveals an empirical evidence that in a hypermedia environment, male students had different patterns of achievement than females. The hypermedia environment supported male and female students' engagement by improving the interest of male and female students taught biology with the pedagogical resources.

In most countries, girls perform better than boys in reading but worse in mathematics. However, there is much variation between countries. Explanations for the gender gaps include the organisation of the school system, students' expectations and macro‐societal factors. The purpose of this paper is to account for gender differences in both reading and mathematics among 15‐year‐old students using data from the OECD's 2000 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) project. In most countries, school system factors are associated with the gender gap in reading but not in mathematics. Generally, gender differences in students' occupational expectations do not account for the gender gaps, although expectations contribute to the gender gaps in reading in New Zealand and the United States. Although several macro‐societal factors—the proportion of women in the workforce, societal inequality and public sector spending—are associated with the gender gap in reading, the correlations are only moderate, unstable and, importantly, are not associated with the gender gaps in mathematics. The much stronger association between the gender gaps in reading and mathematics across countries implies that they are both influenced by policy: the extent that countries have successfully implemented policies to promote the educational outcomes of girls and young women. In such countries the gender gap in mathematics is small or non‐existent but the gender gap in reading is relatively large. Policies shift both gender gaps in tandem.

With the fast-growing sector of information technology in digitizing societies, the attraction and education of qualified recruits in computer science becomes a key task of tertiary education. Considering the high dropout rates and the continuing gender gap in computer science, the current study builds on the “leaky pipeline” phenomenon of women in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) by investigating belonging uncertainty in computer science as a predictor of students’ dropout intentions. In a study with first-semester computer science students (N = 217) at two time points, we tested the hypotheses that female students experience a greater belonging uncertainty than male students and that this belonging uncertainty is predictive of students’ dropout intentions. Furthermore, we explored whether belonging uncertainty is a more relevant predictor of female than male students’ intentions to drop out of computer science. In line with our predictions, our results show that female students experienced greater uncertainty about their belonging within the domain of computer science than male students and that belonging uncertainty significantly predicted students’ dropout intentions above and beyond the pertinent predictors academic self-efficacy, expectancy of success, perceived future utility value of the subject, and previous academic performance. Belonging uncertainty, however, was a relevant predictor of both female and male computer science students’ dropout intentions.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of peer instruction (PI) on performance, gender gap, conceptual learning and problem solving in physics. The students enrolled in two sections of a physics course were selected; one section was treatment group (TG) and the other section was control group (CG). 42 students in TG were instructed with PI whereas 56 students in CG were instructed with conventional instruction. Data were collected using Force Concept Inventory, final examination problems, and students’ opinions about the instruction. The results indicated that PI had more positive effect on students’ conceptual learning and problem solving than conventional instruction. The conceptual learning with PI did not show any statistically significant difference between female and male students in TG. However, the quantitative problem solving performance after PI revealed that male students performed better than female students. The female and male students’ conceptual learning and problem solving performance did not change noticeably in CG. The students in TG also changed their perspective on solving a problem and understanding a concept. They found the method helpful to connect the quantitative solution with related concepts. Key words: conceptual learning, gender gap, peer instruction, physics education, problem solving.

The suicide mortality rate per 100 000 population (SMRP) consistently decreased before the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in Japan and then unexpectedly increased during the pandemic. However, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. To identify trends in and factors associated with suicidal mortality and motives among students in Japan from 2007 to 2022. In this cross-sectional study, data on SMRPs among Japanese middle-school, high-school, and university students were obtained from the government suicide database Suicide Statistics of the National Police Agency. Age-dependent and temporal fluctuations in annual SMRPs, disaggregated by suicidal motive (7 categories and 52 subcategories), sex, and school, were analyzed using linear mixed-effect and joinpoint regression models, respectively. Total suicide numbers from 2007 to 2022 were as follows: 760 male middle-school students, 635 female middle-school students, 2376 male high-school students, 1566 female high-school students, 5179 male university students, and 1880 female university students. The mean (SD) student populations from 2007 to 2022 were as follows: 1 752 737 (81 334) male middle-school students, 1 675 572 (78 824) female middle-school students, 1 648 274 (67 520) male high-school students, 1 614 828 (60 032) female high-school students, 1 652 689 (32 724) male university students, and 1 229 142 (57 484) female university students. Among male students, the leading motives were school-related factors (underachievement and worrying about the future), followed by family-related and health-related motives. Among female students, school-related and family-related motives decreased, but health-related motives showed an age-dependent increase. The SMRPs of middle-school male students and female students were almost equal (mean [SD], 2.7 [1.0] vs 2.4 [1.4]), but the age-dependent increase in SMRPs among male students was pronounced (mean [SD], high-school vs university male students, 9.1 [2.4] vs 19.6 [3.0]; high-school vs university female students, 6.1 [2.4] vs 9.6 [1.8]). However, the incidence of suicide among high-school students associated with health-related motives was greater in female students. The majority of suicides associated with major impactable suicidal motives (school-related, health-related, and family-related motives) began increasing before the pandemic. Changes in SMRP associated with interpersonal relationships, such as conflict with classmates or parents, were not significant, but the rates increased greatly during the pandemic. School-related, health-related, and family-related problems were major motives, whereas the impacts of health-related and family-related motives increased and decreased with age, respectively. Notably, most SMRPs associated with major impactable motives (underachievement, conflict with a parent or classmate, and mental illnesses) had already begun increasing in the late 2010s, indicating that recent increasing SMRPs among school-aged individuals were associated with pandemic-related factors and other factors affecting this generation before the pandemic. It may be inappropriate to uniformly apply research findings based on school-aged individuals to school-based suicide prevention programs for students in middle school, high school, and university.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the gap in scientific literacy between male and female students in the subject of energy. This study involves junior high school students which differentiated by gender. The instruments used in this study were the 2006 and 2015 PISA tests, which consisted of nine questions and were analyzed using the Rasch model. The data was analyzed using the Wright map, person measure, item reliability, and DIF. The findings revealed no significant difference between male and female students' scientific literacy, even though male students' percentage results were more significant than female students. Therefore, this study shows no gender gap in students' scientific literacy in energy material. However, students have low literacy, with a logit of -0.51, so physics teachers must create teaching methods to improve students’ scientific literacy. This research is useful for providing information on the use of the Rasch analysis model to analyze gender gaps in students' scientific literacy, which has the potential to pave the way for the prevention of bias and the development of more effective strategies in achieving gender equality in science education.

The pipeline of three introductory computer science courses at our university have low pass rates. As part of our efforts to improve the pass rates in these courses, we examine the students' mathematics preparation and their progress from one course to the next. We find that the minority of students who enter the university with good mathematics preparation are likely to succeed in our introductory computer science courses. For the majority of students, we suggest a series of interventions throughout the pipeline. Prior to taking Computer Science 1, students could gain more experience with problem solving during the Introduction to Computer Science and Introduction to Computer Engineering courses. We suggest adding precalculus as a prerequisite for Computer Science 2. For students who do not earn an A in Computer Science 2, we plan to examine whether taking a class in a second programming language before taking Computer Science 3 will improve performance in Computer Science 3. Our goal is to improve student learning and retention through these efforts, combined with continual innovation in the classroom.

Despite increasing attention to gender disparities in STEM, there remains a lack of research exploring how educational policies, teacher gender sensitivity and technological integration specifically interact to influence these gaps. Hence, this study intends to examine the effects of educational policies, teachers' gender sensitivity and technological integration on STEM gender gaps, drawing on data from the TIMSS 2019 survey. A random‐effects generalised least squares (RE‐GLS) model is employed to analyse the data. The findings indicated significant gender disparities in mathematics and science scores, with male students achieving higher scores than their female counterparts. Furthermore, educational policies such as the official regulation on students' age of entry to primary school, policy resistance over time, the nationally mandated number of school days per year, the promotion and retention policy across grades, and the presence of national curriculum guidance documents for early childhood education and development (ECED) or pre‐primary education (PPE) programs are influencing the mathematics and science performance of students, particularly males. Moreover, female teachers are more likely to encourage the mathematics and science scores of male students, while male teachers have a greater influence on the mathematics and science scores of female students. In addition, integrating computers, the internet and educational technology into mathematics and science teaching is influencing the performance of both male and female students in these subjects.

This study explored gender-related differences in participation in and scores on the College Board's Advanced Placement Program and Achievement examinations. In both sets of tests, the numbers of male and female high school students were unequal for several subject areas. The French, Spanish, and Modern Hebrew examinations attracted many more female than male students, whereas many more male than female students took the Physics, Chemistry, and Computer Science examinations. There was little change in most of the patterns of enrollment from 1982 through 1992. Male students had moderately higher scores on the Physics, Chemistry, and Computer Science tests, whereas female students had a slight advantage on some of the language examinations. Although the patterns of gender-related score differences were stable, there were some indications that gender differences are narrowing, especially in the areas of American history and computer science.

ABSTRACTGiven growing interest in computing fields, as well as a longstanding gender gap in computer science, this study used nationwide survey data on college students during 4 decades to: (a) document trends in aspirations to major in computer science among undergraduate women and men; (b) explore the characteristics of women and men who choose to major in computer science and how this population has evolved over time; and (c) identify the key determinants of the gender gap in the selection of computer science majors during the past 4 decades. The data included 8 million students attending 1,225 baccalaureate-granting institutions from 1971 to 2011, with selected-year multivariate analyses of 18,830 computer science majors (and 904,307 students from all other majors). The results revealed heavy fluctuations in students’ interest in computer science from 1971 to 2011, with trends highlighting a significant downturn between the late 1990s and 2011 as well as a persistent, sizeable underrepresentation of women across all years. The study also showed that while some of the traditional explanations for the gender gap in computer science held true, there have been distinctive shifts in who pursues computer science and why some students may be particularly interested in or dissuaded from the major.

Background and Aim: The present research was done with the aim to compare the effectiveness of study methods and time management training, on the academic self-Efficacy, academic self-regulation and performance in biology course of female and male students of twelfth grade in experimental science major. Methods: The research method was quasi-experimental with a pretest and posttest design in addition to the control group. The statistical society consisted of all female and male students in twelfth grade of experimental sciences major in Tabriz city during 2021-2022; among them 52 students were selected in one step cluster sampling method as the sample case and categorized in two groups of experimental group (26 students) and the control group (26 students). In order to estimate students’ academic self-efficacy, the standard questionnaire of Jinks and Morgan (1999) was applied. Savari and Arabzadeh (2013) questionnaire was used to analyze their academic self-regulation; and to evaluate students’ performance, their current and previous academic year’s final scores in biology course was utilized. The validity of research instruments was confirmed by the approval of specialists and the reliability was estimated and approved by calculating Cronbach alpha coefficient (α&gt; 0.7). Prior to the study, pre-test of academic self-efficacy and academic self-regulation was implemented in both groups. The experimental group had received study methods and time management trainings through a package in 8 sessions with 60 minutes training, but the control group had not received any training therapy. After the training course in the post-test stage, both of the groups answered to the research instruments of the pre-test stage. Students’ final scores in biology lesson of previous and current academic year was also gained. The research data was analyzed with analysis of covariance using SPSS. Results: Based on the obtained results, the study methods and time management training had the same effectiveness on female and male students’ academic self-efficacy, academic self-regulation and performance in biology course. Conclusion: According to the results of the research, critical thinking and social cognitive training has increased the emotional readiness of female students in the first year of high school. Critical thinking training created a significant difference between the control and experimental groups in terms of the variable of emotional creativity. Also, critical thinking and social cognitive training has improved innovation in female students of the first year of high school. Teaching critical thinking and social cognition has not had a significant impact on students.