General Conclusion and Outlook

trialspecies,therelativemeritsofdifferentapproachesto ensure the long-term persistence of those species remain highly contentious. Most would agree, however, that both establishing protected areas and exercising some form of restraint on extraction of forest resources are among the most effective of all viable conservation measures. Deforestation, wildfires, logging, and hunting are among the leading drivers of species losses in tropical forests, and de facto or de jure protection from these threats can be conferred by either effective enforcement of regulations or physical remoteness. Attempts to assess conservation success of protected areasatlargescaleshaverestedprimarilyonconventional use of remote sensing to quantify spatial or temporal differences in rates of change in land cover due to deforestation and wildfires, rather than on empirical demographic or community-level metrics (Gaston et al. 2008). Q2 However, the former approaches fail to detect most types of subcanopy anthropogenic disturbances that also result, directly or indirectly, in species losses (Peres et al. 2006). Moreover, the effects of habitat loss and degradation on population extirpations and declines are nonlinear, so vegetation cover alone is rarely a robust proxy for the viability of terrestrial biotas. Remotesensing data show vast tracts of apparently intact tropical forests, but in reality levels of hunting and other forms of extraction in these areas are often unsustainable (Peres & Lake 2003). Fundamental questions yet to be answered include whether ostensibly intact protected areas retain full complements of forest species and how the extent of cryptic patterns of disturbance is related to human population density in both protected and unprotected areas. I considered the global to regional emergence of sustainable-use reserves, emphasizing the world’s largest tropical forest region, Amazonia. Sustainable-use reserves often have intermediate levels of disturbance, so I examined the degree of use of natural resources by resident communities and used human population density as a proxy for level of extraction. In both protected and unprotected areas, I also estimated responses of game vertebrate assemblages to hunting on the basis of the relative biomassextractedfromasubsetoftheforestfauna.Iused analysesofcovariance(ANCOVA)toexaminetheassociationbetweenhumandensityandgamebiomassharvested across different reserve categories. Finally, I considered the long-term capacity of sustainable-use forest reserves to maintain populations of all resident species.

In parks and protected area conservation, research is underway to understand the elements and mechanisms of environmental stewardship and to evaluate its effectiveness as a management tool for conservation. Across the country, protected area managers, scientists, concerned citizens and communities are trying to harness stewardship actions to mitigate systemic threats to parks and other protected areas. Through developing and engaging with a stewardship framework approach (i.e., an organized, collaboratively supported, and enduring system of stewardship actions), protected area managers can engage a variety of motivated people to collaboratively care for a protected area, creating a win–win solution for park resource users and managers. Recent advances in sustainability science and environmental stewardship address the development of stewardship mechanisms through novel analytical frameworks. Collectively, the framework approach can help protected area managers make actions and initiatives more effective and meaningful to the individuals or communities involved by helping to unravel the multifaceted nature of environmental stewardship. Specifically, we seek to advance the understanding, relevance, and utility of the Bennett et al. (2018) and Enqvist et al. (2018) stewardship frameworks for park and protected area management and conservation efforts. In doing so, we also offer potentially new, interdisciplinary perspectives and management considerations for leveraging actions that serve to bolster environmental stewardship as a concept, practice, and research focus for parks and protected areas. [This is a paper from "Systemic Threats to Parks & Protected Areas," the 2020 George Wright Society Student Summit.]

Protected areas for conservation and poverty alleviation: experiences from Madagascar Charlie J. Gardner*, Martin E. Nicoll, Tsibara Mbohoahy, Kirsten L. L. Oleson, Anitry N. Ratsifandrihamanana, Joelisoa Ratsirarson, Lily-Arison Ren e de Roland, Malika Virah-Sawmy, Bienvenue Zafindrasilivonona and Zoe G. Davies WWF Madagascar and Western Indian Ocean Programme Office, BP738, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar; Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE), School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NR, UK; D epartement de Biologie, Facult e des Sciences, Universit e de Toliara, Toliara 601, BP 185, Toliara, Madagascar; Blue Ventures Conservation, Level 2 Annex, Omnibus Business Centre, 39-41 North Road, N7 9DP London, UK; ESSA-D epartement Eaux et Forets, Universit e d’Antananarivo, BP 175 Antananarivo, Madagascar; and The Peregrine Fund, BP 4113 Antananarivo, Madagascar

Ecosystem conservation in protected areas (PAs) depends on friendly behavior (e.g., no illegal wildlife hunting) toward the ecosystem by residents living within a PA, which can be prompted by good cooperation with PA managers. However, conflicts often arise between local residents and PA managers (e.g., disproportionate allocation of benefits), existing in the form of implicit conflicts (e.g., non-compliance with policy implementation) that can affect conservation goals of a PA. Here, we develop a theoretical framework, synthesizing theories related to conflict, displaced aggression, routine activity, withdrawal behavior, and livelihood, to explain how implicit conflicts affect ecological misbehavior of residents living within PAs. We collected data from 155 residents living in Patatso National Park, China, during April–June 2022 to test the relationships between our framework variables (i.e., implicit conflicts, ecological misbehavior, withdrawal intention, livelihood strategies) using partial least squares-structural equation modeling. Results show that: (1) higher levels of implicit conflicts strengthen residents’ withdrawal intention from environmental responsibility and increase ecological misbehavior; (2) the effect of implicit conflicts on withdrawal intention and ecological misbehavior is moderated by the livelihood strategies of residents; (3) for residents adopting inner livelihood strategies (e.g., herding), higher implicit conflicts lead to stronger withdrawal intention and ecological misbehavior; for those adopting outer livelihood strategies (e.g., working in cities or industries), implicit conflicts have no significant effect on withdrawal intention or ecological misbehavior. This research elucidates the mechanisms by which social conflict influences residents’ ecological misbehavior by clarifying the mediating role of withdrawal intention and the moderating effects of livelihood strategies, offering practical insights for managers to enhance the effectiveness of ecosystem conservation.

It is indicated that proper protection of fundamental human rights is a key criterion for the existence of a true legal state. Coverage of the functioning of the European Court of Human Rights is becoming increasingly widespread in the information space. The significance of this institution not only does not decrease over time, but also increases. Today, the ECHR has become an effective mechanism of legal protection for those citizens who have exhausted the possibilities of achieving justice within the national legal system. The article examines the impact of the ECtHR decisions on the protection of human rights through the prism of modern challenges and threats. It is noted that the imperfection of the national judicial system is an obvious fact. At the same time, Ukraine is among the five countries with the largest number of applications to the European Court of Human Rights. It is emphasized that the fact that more and more people are applying to the European Court of Human Rights indicates that it is an effective mechanism for protecting their rights and freedoms. However, the ECtHR is a supranational mechanism for the protection of human rights: its capabilities are limited by its powers, the breadth of which is determined taking into account respect for the sovereignty of the member states that have voluntarily undertaken to implement the decisions of the Court to which they are parties. The effectiveness of the legal protection mechanism established by the European Convention on Human Rights depends not only on the efficiency of the Court’s work, but also on how conscientiously states implement its decisions. And only the combination of these two factors has the effect of ensuring human rights and fundamental freedoms stipulated by the Convention. It is concluded that in the context of adapting Ukrainian legislation to EU legislation, ensuring social human rights (the right to a decent standard of living and social development), political rights (compliance with international electoral standards, the right to association), and protecting human rights are the key to stable partnership relations with EU member states. Ukraine needs to continue to make considerable efforts to ensure the effectiveness of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, to create new effective national remedies for its violations, and to adapt national legislation to European standards. That is, the most effective and direct protection of human rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Convention should be ensured at the national level.

Beyond nature conservation? Perceived benefits and role of the ecosystem services framework in protected landscape areas in the Czech Republic

The ‘Global Compact’, launched by UN Secretary‐General Kofi Annan in 1999, calls upon business to ‘support and respect the protection of international human rights within their sphere of influence and [to] make sure their own corporations are not complicit in human rights abuses’. This article calls for a complementary ‘Global Compact’ between the UN and UN specialized agencies, as well as with other worldwide public organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), so as to integrate universally recognized human rights into the law and practice of intergovernmental organizations, for example by requiring them to submit annual ‘human rights impact statements’ to UN human rights bodies and to engage in transparent dialogues about the contribution by specialized agencies to the promotion and protection of human rights. The globalization of human rights and of economic integration law offers mutually beneficial synergies: protection and enjoyment of human rights depend also on economic resources and on integration law opening markets, reducing discrimination and enabling a welfare‐increasing division of labour. As a corollary, economic, legal and political integration are also a function of human rights protecting personal autonomy, legal and social security, peaceful change, individual savings, investments, production and mutually beneficial transactions across frontiers. The proposed ‘integration approach’ differs from the 1945 paradigm of ‘specialized agencies’ and state‐centred international law focusing on the ‘sovereign equality’ of states rather than on human rights and democracy. It takes into account the regional experiences in Europe, that integration law enhances not only economic and social welfare but also the rule of law, the protection of human rights and democratic legitimacy at national and international levels of governance. As in European integration law, human rights should be recognized in global integration law as empowering citizens, as constitutionally limiting national and international regulatory powers, and as requiring governments to protect and promote human rights in all policy areas across national frontiers. Global integration law (e.g. in the WTO) should no longer focus one‐sidedly on liberalization. It should also accept shared responsibility for the social adjustment problems of the global division of labour and for governmental obligations to protect and promote human rights in the economy no less than in the polity.

Ecological monitoring is critical to the success of protected areas and remote sensing is critical to the success of ecological monitoring. Both of these statements are true, in part, because of the uncertainty inherent in protected area management. A dominant paradigm in protected area management is the “uncertainty principle” (Hockings et al. 2000) which simply states that decisions can never be made with complete certainty regarding the outcome of management actions. This uncertainty is due to the complex and dynamic nature of ecosystems that protected areas are established to protect. For this reason, adaptive management is a key strategy in the conservation of protected areas (Hockings et al. 2000). Adaptive management is an iterative approach to management where decisions are treated as hypotheses that are to be tested through monitoring (Holling 1978). Results of decisions are monitored to ensure that they support goals and objectives. If monitoring suggests that actions (or inactions) are not effective then they are adapted in light of the new information and adjustments are made. This cycle ofCONTENTS5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 95 5.2 Study Area .................................................................................................... 97 5.3 Methods ......................................................................................................... 985.3.1 Earth Observation/Remote Sensing Methods ............................99 5.3.2 Landscape Ecology Methods ....................................................... 1015.4 Results ......................................................................................................... 105 5.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 108 References ............................................................................................................. 109decision-making-monitoring-adaption is repeated in an iterative manner until protected area goals are met. For protected areas, adaptive management cannot be successful without effective ecological monitoring.

The effective protection of human rights is extremely important in countries in transition faced with the challenge of overcoming an authoritarian past rife with severe violations of basic human rights and freedoms. In post-war societies, where large-scale violations of human rights have resulted from armed conflicts, the effective protection of human rights is even more crucial. Therefore, it is not surprising that one of the primary goals of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina (the Dayton Peace Agreement) was to establish an adequate legal and institutional framework for the enforcement and protection of human rights in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina provides for a special status to the European Convention on Human Rights and its protocols, which, pursuant to Article II.1 of the Constitution, shall have priority over all other laws. The Constitution also stipulates that the enjoyment of rights and freedoms provided for in the 15 human rights instruments listed in Annex 1 to the Constitution shall be guaranteed to all persons in Bosnia and Herzegovina without discrimination on any grounds. While the Constitution envisages the existence of several institutions responsible for guaranteeing respect for human rights, the possibility of BiH citizens to directly address the European Court of Human Rights as well as other bodies responsible for monitoring the implementation of appropriate human rights instruments, whose practice will be discussed within this paper, is of great importance. Although this type of protection is highly important, it is necessary to strive for the improvement of the national (BiH and entity) human rights protection system, through the continuous improvement of the legal framework and the functioning of institutions entrusted with the protection and enforcement of human rights. The paper also analyses the effects of the ratification of international instruments on human rights protection.

Wildlife conservation society’s activities and biodiversity conservation in protected areas in cross river state, Nigeria

Protected areas are a global cornerstone of biodiversity conservation and restoration. Yet freshwater biodiversity is continuing to decline rapidly. To date there has been no formal review of the effectiveness of protected areas for conserving or restoring biodiversity in rivers, lakes, and wetlands. We present the first assessment using a systematic review of the published scientific evidence of the effectiveness of freshwater protected areas. Systematic searches returned 2,586 separate publications, of which 44 provided quantitative evidence comprising 75 case studies. Of these, 38 reported positive, 25 neutral, and 12 negative outcomes for freshwater biodiversity conservation. Analysis revealed variable relationships between conservation effectiveness and factors such as taxa assessed, protected area size and characteristics, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) protected area category, and ecoregion. Lack of effectiveness was attributed to many anthropogenic factors, including fishing (often with a lack of law enforcement), water management (abstraction, dams, and flow regulation), habitat degradation, and invasive non‐native species. Drawing on the review and wider literature we distil eight lessons to enhance the effectiveness of protected areas for freshwater biodiversity conservation. We urge policymakers, protected area managers, and those who fund them to invest in well‐designed research and monitoring programs and publication of evidence of protected area effectiveness.

Improving equity in the context of protected areas conservation cannot be achieved in situations where people have different capabilities to participate. Participatory video has the potential to uncover hidden perspectives and worldviews and to build trustworthy, transparent and accountable relationships between marginalized communities and external agencies. We present findings from video-mediated dialogues between Indigenous peoples and decision makers involved in the management of three protected areas in Guyana. Participatory films created by Indigenous researchers in their communities were screened and discussed with protected area managers. We recorded their responses and presented them back to the communities. We show how the video-mediated process provided a rich and contextualized understanding of equity issues. It enabled recognition and respect by protected area managers for Indigenous lived experiences and the contribution of their values and knowledge. For Indigenous peoples, the participatory video process built confidence and critical reflection on their own activities and responsibilities whilst allowing them to challenge decision makers on issues of transparency, communication and accountability. We show that equity is an evolving process and that different protected areas with their differing histories and relationships with Indigenous communities produce distinct outcomes over time. Thus, promoting equity in protected areas and conservation must be a long-term process, enabling participation and producing the conditions for regular, transparent and honest communications. Standardized indicators of protected areas equity could be useful for reporting on international targets, but video-mediated dialogue can facilitate deeper understanding, greater representation and a recognition of rights.

Area-based conservation is essential to safeguard nature’s diversity. In view of expanding human land use, increasing climate change and unmet conservation targets, area-based conservation requires efficiency and effectiveness more than ever. In this review, I identify and relate pressing challenges to promising opportunities for effective and efficient protected area governance and management, to enhance research, decision-making and capacity building in area-based conservation under uncertain future developments. I reveal that protected area management is particularly challenged by human land use, climate change, invasive species, and social, political and economic limitations. Protected area management often lacks the continuous availability of data on current states and trends of nature and threats. Biocultural conservation, climate-smart management and biosecurity approaches help to overcome challenges induced by human needs, climate change and invasive species, respectively. Economic valuation and shifts in funding priorities can boost protected area effectiveness and efficiency. In-situ monitoring techniques, remote sensing and open data infrastructures can fill data and information gaps for protected area planning and management. Moreover, adaptive management is an auspicious concept in the framework of systematic conservation planning to ensure the enduring effectiveness of protected areas despite unpredictable future developments. Post-2020 international biodiversity and sustainable development goals could be met earlier if protected areas were more effective. I consequently conclude with the need for a global information system that is to support area-based conservation by synthesizing challenges and opportunities for protected area management effectiveness and efficiency at the local to global level.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation enshrines one of the important postulates on the formation of the rule of law and civil society: a person and his rights and freedoms are of the highest value. In the modern period of development of information technologies, mankind entered into active communication relations through the global information and telecommunication network Internet, which in turn sharply raised the issue of the need to ensure effective protection of human and civil rights and freedoms in the process of interaction through the Internet, while maintaining a high level of guarantees for the realization of such rights and freedoms, as required by the fundamental international legal acts. The Russian Federation also did not stand aside from the above processes and was forced to take measures to protect the rights and freedoms of its citizens on the Internet, which, however, often boiled down to the introduction of new prohibitions and restrictions on such rights and freedoms. The authors of this article have made an attempt, taking into account the practice of the European Court of Human Rights and the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, to indicate the main directions for improving domestic federal legislation, in order to reflect in it the principle of the need to find a balance between the free implementation and protection of human and civil rights and freedoms in information and telecommunication network Internet. So that the actual problems of the realization of human rights and freedoms, due to the peculiarities of their implementation on the Internet, necessarily require the development of the most effective mechanisms for their protection in the new conditions of implementation, and not a complete rejection of the implementation of such rights and freedoms under the pretext of protecting them.

This study has been carried out with the purpose of coming up with suggestions for designation of domestic protection areas and improvement of their management through a comparative analysis of the systems of management of the protection areas in South Korea, Japan and China. Starting with the designation of natural reserves in 1962, South Korea has prepared legal systems for preserving ecosystems and biodiversity, while continuing to designate protected areas. As the state has so far monopolized the designation and management of all South Korean protection areas that take up 10.8% of its entire land area (as of Dec. 2011), with such persisting issues as multiple designations of one and the same area for protection, overlapping management authorities, and management of privately owned land in the protection areas. In Japan, which has protected area sizes and relevant legal systems similar to those in South Korea, the state provides the basic framework for management, while delegating most of the duties related to direct operation and management to specific municipalities. China, with an integrated administrative management of protected areas, has related government offices and municipalities responsible for the designation and management of individual protected areas. South Korea needs to provide a legally based support system that would further enhance the value of areal protection and contribute to the promotion of local economy and community.