GRU Based Deep Learning Model for Prognosis Prediction of Disease Progression

Prediction of dissolved oxygen in a fishery pond based on gated recurrent unit (GRU)

MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) are definitely one of the best approach to support the international agenda about inclusive and equitable education and lifelong learning opportunities for all (SDG4) [1]. A great deal universities and institutions offer valuable free courses to their numerous students and to people around the word through MOOC platforms. However, because of huge number of learners and data generated, learner’s behaviour in those platforms remain a kind of black box for learners themselves and for courses instructors who are supposed to tutor or monitor learners in the learning process. Therefore, learner do not receive sufficient support from instructors and from their peers, during the learning process [2]. This is one the main reasons that lead to high dropout, low completion and success rate observed in the MOOCs. Many research work have suggested descriptive, predictive and prescriptive models to address this issue, but most of these models focus on predicting dropout, completion and/or success, and do not generally pay enough attention to one of the key step (learner behaviour), that comes before, and can explain dropping out and failure. Our research aims to develop a deep learning model to predict learner behaviour (learner interactions) in the learning process, in order to equip learners and course instructors with insight understanding of the learner behaviour in the learning process. This specific paper will focus on analysing relevant algorithms to develop such model. For this analysis, we used data from UNESCO-IICBA (International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa) MOOC platform, designed for teacher training in Africa, and then we examine many types of features: geographical, social behavioural and learning behavioural features. Learner’s behaviour being a time series Big data, we built the predictive model using Deep Learning algorithms for better performance and accuracy (Thanks to the power of deep learning) compared to baseline Machine learning algorithms. Time series data is best handled by recurrent neural networks (RNN) [3], so, we choose RNN and implemented/tested the three main architectures of RNN: Simple RNNs, GRU (Gated Recurrent Unit) RNNs and LSTM (Long short-term memory) RNNs. The models were trained using L2 Regularization, based on the predictions results, we unexpectedly found model with simple RNNs produced the best performance and accuracy on the dataset used than the other RNN architectures. We had couple of observations, example: we saw a correlation between video viewing and quiz behaviour and the participation of the learner to the learning process. This observation could allow teachers to provide meaningful support and guidance to at risk or less active students. We also observed that, the shorter the video or the quiz, the more the viewer. We conclude that we could use learner video or quiz viewing behaviour to predict his behaviour concerning other MOOC contents. These results suggest the need of deeper research on educational video and educational quiz designing for MOOCs.

The climate crisis has sparked a global shift toward renewable energy sources, increasing the demand for models that provide accurate risk assessment and forecasting to support informed investment decisions. The novelty of this study is to analyze renewable energy investments through three methodological approaches: risk assessment, deep learning-based volatility forecasting, and renewable energy demand forecasting. First, risk profiles of two renewable energy stocks (NextEra Energy and Iberdrola) and two traditional energy stocks (ExxonMobil and Chevron) are evaluated for the time period 2020 to 2024. Second, deep learning (DL) models such as recurrent neural network (RNN), long short-term memory (LSTM), gated recurrent unit (GRU), bidirectional long short-term memory (BiLSTM), bidirectional gated recurrent unit (BiGRU) are employed, and it is shown that renewable energy stocks have more stable performance across all DL models, with BiLSTM revealed as the most robust architecture. Third, UK liquid biofuel consumption trends are analyzed using multiple forecasting methods, including Mean, Naïve, Seasonal Naïve, Drift, and machine learning models. It is shown that the neural network autoregressive (NNAR) model has the highest forecast accuracy, and among the combined forecast models, constrained least squares achieved the highest forecast accuracy. The results indicate that renewable energy produces lower risk exposure and more stable returns, and improves predictability despite short-term volatility.

Accurate rainfall forecasting is crucial in activities such as agricultural planning, water resource management, and flood preparedness, so failure to accurately forecast rainfall might undermine these activities. This study aimed to improve the accuracy of daily rainfall prediction in Hai district, Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania, a region characterised by a bimodal rainfall pattern, by comparing rainfall prediction accuracies of Traditional Machine Learning (TML) and Deep Learning (DL) models. The 25-year daily rainfall dataset for Hai district was first pre-processed by cleaning, normalisation, and splitting into training (first 60%), validation (next 20%), and test (last 20%) sets. TML models (K-Nearest Neighbours (KNN) through its variant KNN Regressor and Support Vector Machine (SVM) through its variant Support Vector Regressor (SVR)) were developed, trained, and their performances compared with developed and trained DL models (Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and Gated Recurrent Units (GRU)). Each model’s test performance was evaluated using the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) metric. The findings revealed that the DL models, LSTM and GRU, achieved test RMSE scores of 6.35 mm and 6.49 mm, respectively, while the TML models, KNN and SVM, achieved test RMSE scores of 6.61 mm and 10.42 mm, respectively. The study demonstrated that DL models are more effective for accurate rainfall forecasting than TML models in regions with complex rainfall patterns. The insights gained will guide the development of more reliable, location-specific weather prediction systems, ultimately supporting informed decision-making in agriculture, environmental management, and flood risk reduction in Tanzania and other regions facing similar climatic challenges

Water quality prediction (WQP) plays an essential role in water quality management for aquaculture to make aquaculture production profitable and sustainable. In this work, we propose hybrid deep learning (DL) models, convolutional neural network (CNN) with the long short-term memory (LSTM) and gated recurrent unit (GRU) for aquaculture WQP. CNN can effectively fetch the aquaculture water quality characteristics, whereas GRU and LSTM can learn long-term dependencies in the time series data. We conduct experiments using the two different water quality datasets and present an extensive study on the impact of hyperparameters on the performance of the proposed hybrid DL models. Furthermore, the performance of hybrid CNN-LSTM and CNN-GRU models are compared with different baseline LSTM, GRU and CNN DL models and also with attention-based LSTM and attention-based GRU DL models. The results show that the hybrid CNN-LSTM outperformed all other models in terms of prediction accuracy and computation time.

Parts of Speech (pos) tagging corresponds to techniques of tagging accurate pos tags of each word of a sentence. It is a pivotal and indispensable part of sentiment analysis, synthesizing text to speech, analyzing textual data and many more Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks. Though there are many researches done in the field of languages like English, Chinese etc., it is still comparatively unexplored for Bangla. An excellent pos tagger in Bangla language can accelerate NLP of Bangla textual data. In this study, we have developed a novel hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model with two parallel input networks with Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), and Bidirectional Long Short Term Memory (BiLSTM), and an output network of CNN. CNN works well regarding the local dependencies of words in sentences, and BiLSTM works well with the global dependencies of words regarding the context in a sentence. No other work has been done with local features of textual data along with long term word dependencies in Bangla pos tagging studies. The model can work with any external Word Embeddings. In this study, it is implemented with both Embedding Layer and Word2Vec layer. In the evaluation process, Mathews Correlation Coefficient (MCC), Precision-Recall curve are used along with accuracy and F1-score due to the dataset's imbalanced characteristic. Our proposed model accompanied by Word2Vec layer has outperformed Vanilla Recurrent Neural Network (RNN), Gated Recurrent Units (GRU), Long Short Term Memory (LSTM), BiLSTM networks, and also one recent study using the same dataset with the highest accuracy of 0.974, F1-score of 0.883, and MCC value of 0.936.

Short-term solar radiation forecasting using hybrid deep residual learning and gated LSTM recurrent network with differential covariance matrix adaptation evolution strategy

Deep learning (DL) has emerged as a powerful tool for intelligent cyberattack detection, especially Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) in Software-Defined Networking (SDN), where rapid and accurate traffic classification is essential for ensuring security. This paper presents a comprehensive evaluation of six deep learning models (Multilayer Perceptron (MLP), one-dimensional Convolutional Neural Network (1D-CNN), Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU), Recurrent Neural Network (RNN), and a proposed hybrid CNN-GRU model) for binary classification of network traffic into benign or attack classes. The experiments were conducted on an SDN traffic dataset initially exhibiting class imbalance. To address this, Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique (SMOTE) was applied, resulting in a balanced dataset of 24,500 samples (12,250 benign and 12,250 attacks). A robust preprocessing pipeline followed, including missing value verification (no missing values were found), feature normalization using StandardScaler to standardize numerical values, reshaping the data into 3D format to fit temporal models like CNN and GRU, and stratified train-test split (80% training, 20% testing) to maintain class distribution. The CNN-GRU model integrates a 1D convolutional layer for spatial pattern extraction and a GRU layer for temporal sequence learning, followed by dense layers with dropout regularization. The model was trained using the Adam optimizer with early stopping to prevent overfitting. Among all models, the CNN-GRU hybrid achieved perfect test performance, with 100% accuracy, 1.0000 precision, recall, and F1-score, and an ROC AUC of 1.0000. It also demonstrated exceptional generalization, achieving a mean cross-validation (CV) accuracy of 99.70% ± 0.09% and a mean AUC of 1.0000 ± 0.0000 across 5-fold stratified cross-validation. While individual models such as GRU, 1D-CNN, and LSTM also showed strong performance, the CNN-GRU hybrid consistently outperformed them in both accuracy and stability. These results validate the effectiveness of combining convolutional and recurrent architectures, augmented with data balancing via SMOTE, for highly accurate SDN-based intrusion detection.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-13754-1.

Sentiment Analysis of Self Driving Car Dataset: A comparative study of Deep Learning approaches

This study investigates the application of advanced deep learning models to forecast fossil energy prices, a critical factor influencing global economic stability. Unlike previous research, this study conducts a comparative analysis of Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU), Recurrent Neural Network (RNN), Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (Bi-LSTM), Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), and Deep Neural Network (DNN) models. The evaluation metrics employed include Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) and Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE). The results reveal that recurrent architectures, particularly GRU, LSTM, and Bi-LSTM, consistently outperform feedforward and convolutional models, demonstrating superior ability to capture temporal dependencies and nonlinear dynamics in energy markets. In contrast, the RNN and DNN show relatively weaker generalization capabilities. Additionally, visualizations of actual versus predicted prices for each model further emphasize superior forecasting accuracy of recurrent models. The results highlight the potential of deep learning in enhancing investment and policy decisions. Additionally, the results provide significant implications for policymakers and investors by emphasizing the value of accurate energy price forecasting in mitigating market volatility, improving portfolio management, and supporting evidence-based energy policies.

Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) in Sri Lanka are increasingly turning to social media to gain insights into consumer preferences; however, they frequently lack sophisticated analytical tools to derive actionable insights. This research introduces a hybrid deep learning framework aimed at sentiment and emotion analysis specifically for the Sri Lankan cake sector. Customer reviews and social media comments were gathered and processed through various methods including text cleaning, emoji translation, stopword elimination, tokenization, and sequence padding. Several deep learning models— Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (BiLSTM), and Gated Recurrent Units (GRU) were assessed, along with hybrid models that combined CNN and BiLSTM with GPT-2 embeddings. The CNN+GPT-2 model achieved the highest accuracy in sentiment classification at 96.14%, while BiLSTM performed best in emotion classification with an accuracy of 91.57%. In terms of trend forecasting, Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) outshone both SARIMA and Prophet, yielding the lowest error metrics and the most reliable sentiment predictions. These results underscore the potential of hybrid deep learning and transformer-based models to effectively capture complex consumer sentiments and provide SMEs with practical, AI-driven insights. This study is among the first to implement such hybrid NLP models within a localized Sri Lankan context, presenting a scalable approach for business intelligence and informed decision-making.

The purpose of the study was to train and compare machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) models for long-term forecasting of minimum daily temperatures (frosts) - a key agrometeorological risk affecting crop productivity. The study was based on data from weather stations in St. Petersburg and the Leningrad region. To predict the year ahead, which aligns with the needs of operational agricultural production planning (sowing dates, harvest timing, protective measures), 8 methods were used: ForecasterAutoreg, Random Forest, Support Vector Regression (SVR), XGBoost, Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), SimpleRNN, Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM). The analysis was carried out on two datasets: for the periods 1936-2024 and 1881-1995. The quality of the models was assessed using the metrics MAE, MSE, RMSE, R2 and adjusted R2. The LSTM model showed the most accurate results on the main dataset (1936-2024): MAE 2.9, MSE 14.661, R2 0.789. The SVR method (MAE 3.461, R2 0.775) demonstrated the best metrics based on archived data (1881-1995). It has been established that DL models (LSTM, GRU, CNN) generally outperform classical ML methods based on modern data. The LSTM method is recognized as the most effective for integration into precision farming systems and agricultural monitoring in the region for the advance planning of agrotechnological measures to protect crops from frost, optimization of crop rotation systems, and minimization of crop loss risks.

Prediction concept needs human-like thinking and ideas. ANN helps make a program for describing the solutions to the prediction problems. To gain accurate prediction, there is a need for deep thinking in the knowledge system discovered. Deep learning helps form such next-level type of ANN thinking. Deep learning models do not require humans for programming the problems. It can determine the prediction by itself by learning the dataset. This paper describes the prediction by considering sequential model for continuous accessing of data with the help of multi-layers. Deep learning is very helpful for predicting larger dataset. This paper proposes an algorithmic model known as a Comprehensive Deep Recurrent Artificial Neural Networks (CDRANN) by hybridizing LSTM (long short-term memory) with RNN (recurrent neural network) backtrack solver for better future stock prediction. This paper also explains the need for hybridizing evolutionary model CDRANN to create a novel change in future prediction.KeywordsCDRANN (Comprehensive Deep Recurrent Artificial Neural Networks)LSTM (long short-term memory)RNN (recurrent neural network)Stock marketPrediction

Data available on the internet is growing constantly. This huge amount of data makes it harder for the users to get useful information. Comments and reviews of movies are given by many users, and recommendation systems makes it easier to find useful content, which is fast and relevant for users. Movies with more positive reviews and comments are usually chosen by everyone. The sentiment behind user reviews is useful to know whether a movie is worth watching. This paper outlines an approach for a movie recommendation system that uses cosine similarity technique to recommend similar movies to users based on the movie title , genre, director, actor they choose or search . Deep learning algorithms, GRU (Gated Recurrent unit), LSTM (long short-term memory), RNN (Recurrent neural network) and BI-LSTM (bi-directional long short-term memory), are trained and tested to classify user comments taken from YouTube into positive, negative, and neutral sentiments. Accuracy, F1-score, precision, recall measures are utilized to assess the model from every perspective. After comparing four algorithms, as BI-LSTM outperformed other algorithms with an accuracy, recall, F1 score and precision, of 98.58%, 97.99% 98.26% and 98.54% respectively, Bi-LSTM (bi-directional long short-term memory) is used for performing sentiment analysis on the movie reviews dataset to understand users sentiment.

Deep learning based multi-labelled soil classification and empirical estimation toward sustainable agriculture