Hash algorithm comparison through a PIC32 microcontroller

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. "As a result of increasing interconnectivity, information systems and networks are now exposed to a growing number and a wider variety of threats and vulnerabilities. This raises new issues for security." OECD Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks, July 25, 2002, at p. 7, available at www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/22/15582260.pdf. 2. Although not the subject of this article, it is important to note that countries are also enacting cybercrime legislation to make clear that certain online activities are illegal and to assist law enforcement in efforts to prosecute cyber criminals. To that end, the Privacy and Computer Crime Committee of the American Bar Association Section of Science & Technology Law has recently undertaken a project to develop a Model Cybercrime Law for the UN International Telecommunication Union's (ITU) Cybersecurity Work Programme to Assist Developing Countries. See also the International Guide to Combating Cybercrime published by this Committee, available at http://www.abanet.org/dch/committee.cfm?com=ST202003. 3. See the Appendix for a compilation of some of the key laws and regulations governing information security. 4. See, e.g., EU Data Protection Directive and HIPAA, cited in the Appendix. 5. See, e.g., E-SIGN, UETA, and UN Convention cited in the Appendix. 6. See, e.g., Kimberly Kiefer and Randy V. Sabett, Openness of Internet Creates Potential for Corporate Information Security Liability, BNA Privacy & Security Law Report, Vol. 1, No. 25 at 788 (June 24, 2002); Alan Charles Raul, Frank R. Volpe, and Gabriel S. Meyer, Liability for Computer Glitches and Online Security Lapses, BNA Electronic Commerce Law Report, Vol. 6, No. 31 at 849 (August 8, 2001); Erin Kenneally, The Byte Stops Here: Duty and Liability for Negligent Internet Security, Computer Security Journal, Vol. XVI, No. 2, 2000. 7. See, e.g., Wolfe v. MBNA America Bank, 485 F.Supp.2d 874, 882 (W.D. Tenn. 2007); Guin v. Brazos Higher Education Service, Civ. No. 05-668, 2006 U.S. Dist. Lexis 4846 (D. Minn. February 7, 2006); and Bell v. Michigan Council, 2005 Mich. App. Lexis 353 (Mich. App. February 15, 2005) (all affirming a negligence cause of action). See also, In Re TJX Companies Retail Security Breach Litigation, 2007 U.S. Dist. Lexis 77236 (D. Mass. October 12, 2007) (rejecting a negligence claim due to the economic loss doctrine, but allowing a negligent misrepresentation claim to proceed). 8. See, e.g., American Express v. Vinhnee, 2005 Bankr. Lexis 2602 (9th Cir. Bk. App. Panel, 2005); Lorraine v. Markel, 2007 U.S. Dist. Lexis 33020 (D. MD. May 4, 2007). 9. Available at www.pcisecuritystandards.org. 10. Available at www.cabforum.org. 11. ISO/IEC 27001, Information Technology—Security Techniques—Information Security Management Systems—Requirements (October 2005) (hereinafter "ISO/IEC 27001"), available for purchase at http://www.standards-online.net/InformationSecurityStandard.htm. 12. Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of October 24, 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (hereinafter "EU Data Protection Directive"). 13. See statutes listed in the Appendix. 14. See statutes listed in the Appendix. 15. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 ("HIPAA"), 42 U.S.C. 1320d-2 and 1320d-4, (providing that "each person … who maintains or transmits health information shall maintain reasonable and appropriate administrative, technical, and physical safeguards: (A) to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of the information; (B) to protect against any reasonably anticipated: (i) threats or hazards to the security or integrity of the information; and (ii) unauthorized uses or disclosures of the information; and (C) otherwise to ensure compliance with this part by the officers and employees of such person," at 42 U.S.C. 1320d-2(d)(2). 16. Gramm-Leach-Bliley Financial Services Modernization Act ("GLB"), Pub. L. No. 106-102, 113 Stat. 1338 (November 12, 1999), at §§ 501 and 505(b), 15 U.S.C. §§ 6801, 6805, providing that "[E]ach financial institution has an affirmative and continuing obligation to respect the privacy of its customers and to protect the security and confidentiality of those customers' nonpublic personal information." 17. See, Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act ("GLB"), Public Law 106-102, §§ 501 and 505(b), 15 U.S.C. §§ 6801, 6805, and implementing regulations at 12 C.F.R. Part 30, Appendix B (OCC), 12 C.F.R. Part 208, Appendix D (Federal Reserve System), 12 C.F.R. Part 364, Appendix B (FDIC), 12 C.F.R. Part 568 (Office of Thrift Supervision) and 16 C.F.R. Part 314 (FTC). 18. Final HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Part 164. 19. There have also been efforts in the United States to pursue comprehensive federal privacy similar to the approach taken by many other countries. See e.g., Microsoft position paper at www.microsoft.com/presspass/download/features/2005/PrivacyLegislationCallWP.doc. Although it remains to be seen whether that approach will ultimately be adopted, it is clear that the combination of U.S. state and federal law has, in effect, imposed a comprehensive obligation of security with respect to all personal information held by all companies. 20. See, e.g., FTC enforcement actions regarding In the Matter of Sunbelt Lending Services, Inc.; In the Matter of Petco Animal Supplies, Inc.; In the Matter of MTS, Inc., d/b/a Tower records/Books/Video; In the matter of Guess?, Inc.; FTC V. Microsoft; and In the Matter of Eli Lilly and Company cited in the Appendix. 21. See, e.g., FTC enforcement actions regarding In the Matter of CardSystems Solutions, Inc.; United States v. ChoicePoint, Inc.; In the Matter of DSW Inc.; and In the Matter of BJ's Wholesale Club, Inc. cited in the Appendix. 22. See list in the Appendix. 23. See, e.g., Guin v. Brazos Higher Education Service, Civ. No. 05-668, 2006 U.S. Dist. Lexis 4846 (D. Minn. February 7, 2006) and Bell v. Michigan Council, 2005 Mich. App. Lexis 353 (Mich. App. February 15, 2005). 24. 205 Mich. App. Lexis 353 at ∗16 (Mich. App. 2005). 25. 2006 U.S. Dist. Lexis 4846 at ∗9 (D. Minn. 2006). 26. Wolfe v. MBNA America Bank, 485 F.Supp.2d 874, 882 (W.D. Tenn. 2007). 27. In Re TJX Companies Retail Security Breach Litigation, 2007 U.S. Dist. Lexis 77236 (D. Mass. October 12, 2007), at pp. 28–29. 28. Ibid. 29. The Homeland Security Act of 2002 defines the term "information system" to mean "any equipment or interconnected system or subsystems of equipment that is used in the automatic acquisition, storage, manipulation, management, movement, control, display, switching, interchange, transmission, or reception of data or information, and includes—(A) computers and computer networks; (B) ancillary equipment; (C) software, firmware, and related procedures; (D) services, including support services; and (E) related resources." Homeland Security Act of 2002, Pub. L. 107-296, at Section 1001(b), amending 44 U.S.C. § 3532(b)(4). 30. See, e.g., Australia, Information Privacy Principles under the Privacy Act 1988, Principle No. 4, available at www.privacy.gov.au/publications/ipps.html; AICPA and the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA), Generally Accepted Privacy principles, Principle No. 8, available at http://infotech.aicpa.org/Resources/Privacy/Generally+Accepted+Privacy+Principles; APEC, Privacy principles, Principle No. 7, available at http://austlii.edu.au/∼graham/APEC/APECv10.doc; US-EU Safe Harbor Privacy Principles, available at www.export.gov/safeharbor/SHPRINCIPLESFINAL.htm; Direct Marketing Association, Online Marketing Guidelines, available at www.the-dma.org/guidelines/onlineguidelines.shtml. 31. Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of October 24, 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (hereinafter "EU Data Protection Directive"). 32. EU Data Protection Directive, Preamble at Para. 46. 33. EU Data Protection Directive, Article 17(1). 34. See statutes listed in the Appendix. 35. See statutes listed in the Appendix. 36. See generally, Bruce H. Nearon, Jon Stanley, Steven W. Teppler, and Joseph Burton, Life after Sarbanes-Oxley: The Merger of Information Security and Accountability, Jurimetrics Journal, Vol. 45, 379–412 (2005). 37. American Express v. Vinhnee, 336 B.R. 437; 2005 Bankr. Lexis 2602 (9th Cir. December 16, 2006). 38. Ibid., at p. 444. 39. Ibid., at p. 445. 40. Ibid., at pp. 446–447. 41. Ibid., at p. 449. 42. See, e.g., National Association of Corporate Directors, Information Security Oversight (2007). 43. Sarbanes-Oxley Act, Section 302. 44. See, e.g., GLB Security Regulations (Federal Reserve) 12 C.F.R. 208, Appendix D-2.III(A). 45. HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section 164.308(a)(2). 46. See, FTC Decisions and Consent Decrees listed in the Appendix, including Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4; Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. 27(a), p. 7; Eli Lilly Decision at II.A. 47. FISMA, 44 U.S.C. 3544(a). 48. E. Michael Power and Roland L. Trope, Sailing in Dangerous Waters: A Director's Guide to Data Governanc e , American Bar Association (2005), p. 13; Roland L. Trope, "Directors' Digital Fiduciary Duties," IEEE Security & Privacy, January/February 2005 at p. 78. 49. Caremark International Inc. Derivative Litigation, 698 A.2d 959 (Del. Ch. 1996). 50. Bell v. Michigan Council, 2005 Mich. App. Lexis 353 (Mich. App. February 15, 2005), at pp. 11–13 (noting that harm was foreseeable, but Board took no action). 51. Securing Cyberspace: Business Roundtable's Framework for the Future, Business Roundtable, May 19, 2004 at pp. 1, 2; available at www.businessroundtable.org/pdf//20040518000CyberSecurityPrinciples.pdf. The Business Roundtable is an association of chief executive officers of leading U.S. corporations with a combined workforce of more than 10 million employees in the United States. See www.businessroundtable.org. 52. Information Security Governance: A Call to Action, Corporate Governance Task Force Report, National Cyber Security Partnership, April 2004, pp. 12–13, available at www.cyberpartnership.org/InfoSecGov4_04.pdf. The National Cyber Security Partnership (NCSP) is led by the Business Software Alliance (BSA), the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), TechNet, and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce in voluntary partnership with academicians, CEOs, federal government agencies, and industry experts. Following the release of the 2003 White House National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace and the National Cyber Security Summit, this public–private partnership was established to develop shared strategies and programs to better secure and enhance America's critical information infrastructure. Further information is available at www.cyberpartnership.org. 53. GLB Security Regulations (OCC), 12 C.F.R. Part 30, Appendix B, Part III.A and Part III.F. 54. See, e.g., Homeland Security Act of 2002 (Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002) 44 U.S.C. Section 3542(b)(1); GLB Security Regulations (OCC), 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part II.B; HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section 164.306(a)(1); Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4. 55. See, e.g., 44 USC 3532(b)(1), emphasis added. See also FISMA, 44 U.S.C. Section 3542(b)(1). Most of the foreign privacy laws also focus their security requirements from this perspective. This includes, for example, the EU Privacy Directive, Finland's Privacy Law, Italy's Privacy Law, and the UK Privacy Law. Also in this category is the Canadian Privacy Law. 56. Although they often focus on categories of security measures to address. See, e.g., HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Part 164. 57. See, e.g., FDA regulations at 21 C.F.R. Part 11 (procedures and controls); SEC regulations at 17 C.F.R. 257.1(e)(3) (procedures); SEC regulations at 17 C.F.R. 240.17a-4 (controls); GLB regulations (FTC) 16 C.F.R. Part 314 (safeguards); Canada, Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act, Schedule I, Section 4.7 (safeguards); EU Data Privacy Directive, Article 17(1) (measures) available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/privacy/docs/95-46-ce/dir1995-46_part1_en.pdf. 58. See, e.g., HIPAA 42 U.S.C. 1302d-2, and HIPAA Security regulations, 45 CFR 164.306; COPPA, 15 U.S.C. 6502(b)(1)(D), and COPPA regulations 16 C.F.R. 312.8; IRS Rev. Proc. 97-22, sec. 4.01(2); SEC regulations 17 C.F.R. 257. See also UCC Article 4A, Section 202 ("commercially reasonable" security procedure), and Microsoft Consent Decree. 59. "Appropriate" security required by: HIPAA 42 U.S.C. 1302d-2, and HIPAA Security regulations, 45 CFR 164.306; EU Data Protection Directive, Article 17(1). 60. EU Data Protection Directive, Article 17(1) (emphasis added) 61. See, e.g., Belgium—Belgian Law of 8 December 1992 on Privacy Protection in relation to the Processing of Personal Data, as modified by the law of 11 December 1998 Implementing Directive 95/46/EC, and the law of 26 February 2003, Chapter IV, Article 16(4); Denmark—Act on Processing of Personal Data,; Act No. 429 of 31 May 2000 (unofficial English translation), Title IV, Part 11, Section 41(3); Estonia—Personal Data Protection Act; Passed February12, 2003 (RT1 I 2003, 26, 158), entered into force October 1, 2003, Chapter 3, Sections 19(2); Greece—Law 2472/1997 on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data (as amended by Laws 2819/2000 and 2915/2001); Article 10(3); Ireland—Data Protection (Amendment) Act 2003; Section 2.-(1)(d) and First Schedule Article 7; Lithuania—Law on Legal Protection of Personal Data, January 21, 2003, No. IX-1296, Official translation, with amendments April 13, 2004, Article 24(1); Netherlands—25 892—Rules for the protection of personal data (Personal Data Protection Act) (Unofficial translation); Article 13; Portugal—Act on the Protection of Personal Data (transposing into the Portuguese legal system Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of October 24, 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data), Article 14(1); Slovakia—Act No 428 of July 3, 2002 on personal data protection; Section 15(1); Sweden—Personal Data Act (1998:204); issued April 29, 1998, Section 31; and UK—Data Protection Act 1998, Schedule 1, Part I, Seventh Principle. 62. See, e.g., Finland—The Finnish Personal Data Act (523/1999), given on 22.4.1999, Section 32(1); Germany—Federal Data Protection Act as of January 1, 2003, Section 9; Hungary—Act LXIII of 1992 on the Protection of Personal Data and Public Access to Data of Public Interest, Article 10(1); Italy—Personal Data Protection Code, Legislative Decree No. 196 of 30 June 2003, Sections 31 and 33; Spain—Organic Law 15/1999 of December 13 on the Protection of Personal Data, Article 9. 63. 5 USC Sec. 552a. 64. 5 U.S.C. § 552a (d)(10) (emphasis added). 65. 42 U.S.C. 1320d-2(d)(2). 66. See, Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act ("GLB"), Public Law 106-102, §§ 501 and 505(b), 15 U.S.C. §§ 6801, 6805, and implementing regulations at 12 C.F.R. Part 30, Appendix B (OCC), 12 C.F.R. Part 208, Appendix D (Federal Reserve System), 12 C.F.R. Part 364, Appendix B (FDIC), 12 C.F.R. Part 568 (Office of Thrift Supervision) and 16 C.F.R. Part 314 (FTC) (emphasis added). 67. Cal. Civil Code § 1798.81.5(b). 68. See UN Convention at Article 9(3), 9(4), and 9(5). 69. ISO/IEC 27001, Information Technology—Security Techniques—Information Security Management Systems—Requirements (October 2005). See text at footnotes 157–169, infra. February 1, 12 C.F.R. Part 30, Appendix B (OCC), 12 C.F.R. Part 208, Appendix D (Federal Reserve System), 12 C.F.R. Part 364, Appendix B (FDIC), 12 C.F.R. Part 568 (Office of Thrift May 16 C.F.R. Part 44 U.S.C. Section 45 C.F.R. 164. See of the on by of the Technology and Homeland Security of the Committee on the United States 21, 2007 at p. (noting that FTC under the GLB Act as a for the obligation to maintain reasonable and appropriate available at See also, of the the on Information and the Committee on U.S. House of on April 21, 2004, at p. 5 (noting that is an of reasonable and appropriate measures in of the available at See, e.g., FTC Decisions and Consent Decrees listed in the Appendix. See, e.g., National Association of Insurance for Information Model available at in at See, e.g., Consent Decrees listed in the Appendix. 78. See, e.g., Guin v. Brazos Higher Education Service, Civ. No. 05-668, 2006 U.S. Dist. Lexis 4846 (D. Minn. February 7, 2006) and Bell v. Michigan Council, 2005 Mich. App. 353 (Mich. App. February 15, 2005). Guin v. Brazos Higher Education Service, Civ. No. 05-668, 2006 U.S. Dist. Lexis 4846 (D. Minn. February 7, 2006). Bell v. Michigan Council, 2005 Mich. App. Lexis 353 (Mich. App. February 15, 2005). Committee on available at See, e.g., Italy—Personal Data Protection Code, Legislative Decree No. 196 of 30 June 2003, B, § Act No 428 of July 2002 on personal data § the Appendix, Act, B, Section Act, Section the Appendix, Act, Article Act, Section Act, 16(4); Act, Section 41(3); Act, Section Act, Section 32(1); Act, Section 9; Act, Article 10(3); Act, Article 10(1); Act, Article 24(1); Act, Article 13; Act, Article 14(1); Act, Section 15(1); Act, Article 9; Act, Section 31; UK Act, Schedule 1, Part I, Seventh Act, Article 7. the Appendix, Act, Schedule 2, Section Act, Act, Schedule 1, 4.7 Principle 7, Act, Section Act, Section Act, B, Sections and Act, Sections 17 and the Appendix, Act, Section A Security § Act, Section Decree the Appendix, Decree the Appendix, Act, Section Principle 4; Act, Article Act, Article Act, Sections and Act, Section Act, Section Act, Section Act, B, Sections and Act, Sections 17 and Bruce & Digital Security in a & at p. See, e.g., HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section See, e.g., Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4; Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. p. Eli Lilly Decision at II.B; GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30, Appendix B, Part See, e.g., Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4; Eli Lilly Decision at See, e.g., FISMA, 44 U.S.C. Sections and GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30, Appendix B, Part See, e.g., In Electronic July 30, Financial Council, 2; available at See, e.g., Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4; GLB Security Regulations (OCC), 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part Eli Lilly Decision at II.B; HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section Information Security Management Act of 2002 44 U.S.C. Section See, e.g., Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4; GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section Information Security Management Act of 2002 44 U.S.C. Section See, e.g., GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part Information Security Management Act of 2002 44 U.S.C. Section See, e.g., Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4; GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part See, e.g., GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section See, e.g., HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section See, e.g., United States v. Cir. See, e.g., Inc. v. also v. or of to with and of See, e.g., HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part and Part FISMA, 44 U.S.C. Sections and Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4; Ziff Davis Assurance of HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 CFR Section and and on HIPAA Security of & Section of Science & Technology Law, No. April 2003, at p. 2, available at See, e.g., HIPAA regulations 45 C.F.R. Sections and GLB Regulations, 12 C.F.R. 208, Appendix and 12 C.F.R. Part 30, Appendix B, Part Microsoft Consent at p. 4. HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Sections and GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section and Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. 25, p. 6. HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. p. 5 and Para. 25, p. 6. HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. 25, p. 6. GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. 25, p. HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Sections and Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. 25, p. 6. Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. 25, p. 6. HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, and 26, pp. HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part See, e.g., FISMA, 44 U.S.C. Section HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. p. 5. Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. p. 7. HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4. FISMA, 44 U.S.C. Section Eli Lilly Decision at GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30, Appendix B, Part Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. and p. 7; Eli Lilly Decision at HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4; Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. and p. 7; Eli Lilly Decision at GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30, Appendix B, Part HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section and GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section Microsoft Consent Decree at II, p. 4; Eli Lilly Decision at Microsoft Consent Decree at p. 5. Ziff Davis Assurance of Discontinuance, Para. p. 7. See, e.g., of the of the of National on 21, at See, e.g., GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part See, e.g., GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. Section and GLB Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part Wolfe v. MBNA America Bank, 485 F.Supp.2d 874, 882 (W.D. Tenn. 2007). See Bell v. Michigan Council, 2005 Mich. App. Lexis 353 (Mich. App. February 15, 2005). See Guin v. Brazos Higher Education Service, Civ. No. 05-668, 2006 U.S. Dist. Lexis 4846 at (D. Minn. February 7, 2006) that a was the to and a of a was not a of a of reasonable The Financial is a of U.S. federal agencies, that the Board of of the Reserve Insurance the National the of the of the and the of Thrift on on in an Internet 8, 2006 at p. available at on on in an Internet 8, 2006 at p. available at Guide for the Guidelines Information Security December available at Information Security July available at See National Institute of and Management Guide for Information Technology No. available at ISO/IEC 27001, Information Technology—Security Techniques—Information Security Management Systems—Requirements (October 2005) (hereinafter "ISO/IEC ISO/IEC § for is the and of International and is of a of the of with and a in that the The American National Institute the United States. See, The also in and in related to including The of make its with the United States. See ISO/IEC 27001, § (emphasis added). ISO/IEC 27001, § ISO/IEC 27001, § ISO/IEC 27001, § 164. ISO/IEC 27001, § ISO/IEC 27001, §§ and 6. ISO/IEC 27001, §§ and 8. ISO/IEC 27001, §§ ISO/IEC that with an International not in from legal p. 1. EU Data Protection Directive, Article 8. Article Data Protection on the processing of personal data to health in health February 15, at pp. available at (emphasis in See list of state laws in Report, Security and Laws of 15, 2005 at Appendix available at Code, § Rev. Stat. Available at www.pcisecuritystandards.org. See list in the Appendix. See, e.g., 16 CFR Section Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. § HIPAA security regulations to in the Act Security Regulations, 12 C.F.R. Part 30 Appendix B, Part security regulations to information in the financial Homeland Security Act of 2002 § 1001(b), amending 44 U.S.C. § and § amending 44 U.S.C. § information and information systems from unauthorized and regulations, 21 C.F.R. Part 11. See, e.g., Cal. Civil Code § 1798.81.5(b). See April 2, the Matter of of the Act of of Information and Information Services, No. No. April 2, at available at (hereinafter Wolfe v. MBNA America Bank, 485 F.Supp.2d 874, 882 (W.D. Tenn. 2007). in an Internet 12, 2005 available at This was by an on on in an Internet 8, available at of No. 25, The is an See, e.g., HIPAA Security Regulations, 45 C.F.R. § at p. 6. Ibid., at p. 3. Ibid. v. National 2007 U.S. App. Lexis 2007), at p. 13. See, e.g., on of Security Breach Personal of Privacy of April 2006 (hereinafter at pp. at note , at p. a of such in the United States and a of the number of individuals Privacy at IRS Rev. Proc. § See list of statutes in the Appendix. on for Access to Information and Part of A to Appendix, at 12 C.F.R. Part 30 (OCC), 12 C.F.R. Part (Federal Reserve System), 12 C.F.R. Part (FDIC), and 12 C.F.R. Part 568 (Office of Thrift 29, Vol. No. 29, at p. (hereinafter the maintains personal information that the not in the laws the to the or of the information, than the individuals of any of the security of the See, e.g., Code § Rev. Stat. § Code, § Stat. § Code § 2007 The also any combination of of information that to or the such as and or and See, e.g., Breach to the of & Financial Services, December 15 USC Section This that with the of at 15 USC Section and are of in this and are of in this See, and of a Duty to Information Security Computer & L. See and to Law the Protection of Personal BNA Privacy & Security Law Report, 19, p. May See at on the of the Framework for Electronic and Services, with focus on the 26, available at Science and Technology Committee, House of Internet of July 24, at Para. of the Privacy of Canada, for in to Privacy available at See Privacy Breach of the Privacy available at Privacy available at See, of the Privacy to the Law of February at available at Available at Available at to information to state

A cost effective, easy to manage, elastic and powerful resources over the internet is provided to the users by cloud environment. The resource pooling allows the use of same pool by multiple users through multi tenancy and virtualization technology. The VM Migration is the process of relocating a VM to another physical machine without shutting down the VM. The Virtual Migration is carried out for the number of reasons such as load balancing, fault tolerance and maintenance with respect to pooling and memory space management. Memory space prediction method used to predict the free memory space and allocate the memory to the new processes or the requested user. Memory allocation then becomes a selection function of selecting appropriate memory space according to the user needs a capacity. The free memory spaces are listed in the free list. It's helpful for easy allocation. During the migration phase, the contents of the VM are exposed to the network that might lead to data privacy and integrity concerns. Besides data, the space used by VM for storage and communication is also vulnerable to attackers during migration. To reduce the data loss due to attack on memory space to increase the confidentiality of the data which is migrated, here it is designed and implemented a new scheme for Virtual Machine Migration using Memory Space Prediction with compression method for storage using a cryptic methodology. The prediction based compression algorithm used to transfer data in compressed manner, it also decreases the migration time and down time and the hash algorithm used to increases the data confidentiality and security.

Information security, reliability of data transfer are today an important component of the globalization of information technology. Therefore, the proposed work is devoted to highlighting the results of the design and development of a hacking-resistant algorithm to ensure the integrity of information transfer via digital technology and computer engineering. To solve such problems, cryptographic hashing functions are used. In particular, elements of deterministic Chaos were introduced into the developed cyclic hashing algorithm. The investigation analyzes in detail the strengths and weaknesses of known hashing algorithms. They are shown to have disadvantages. The main ones are a large number of matches (Hamming (x, y) and the presence of a weak avalanche effect, which lead to a significant decrease in the reliability of the algorithm for hacking. The designed hashing algorithm uses an iterative Merkley-Damgard structure, augmented by the input message to a length multiple of 512 bits. Processing in blocks of 128-bit uses cellular automata with mixed rules of 30, 105 and 90, 150 and takes into account the dependence of the generation of the initial vector on the incoming message. This allows half of the 10,000 pairs of arbitrary messages to have an inverse Hamming distance of 0 to 2. The proposed algorithm is four times slower than the well-known family of "secure hash algorithms." However, computation speed is not a critical requirement for a hash function. Decreasing the sensitivity to the avalanche effect allows the generation time to be approximately halved. Optimization of the algorithm, as well as its testing was carried out using new technologies of the Java programming language (version 15). Suggestions and recommendations for improving this approach to data hashing are given also

Electronic medical records must adhere to the principles of data and information security, which include availability, integrity, and confidentiality. Medical records serve as legitimate legal evidence, thereby satisfying these principles both individually and institutionally. Consequently, the aim of this research is to explore the roles of law on medical records for data and information security. To achieve this aim, a systematic literature review (SLR) was employed. The Scopus and PubMed databases were chosen for their global recognition. Full-text articles from these databases were subjected to PRISMA analysis using Mendeley Reference Manager. The researchers collected 32 research articles by the categories of data protection law, medical records' law enforcement, and data protection law recommendation. The research findings indicate that the roles of law deal with the role of law in compliance and data protection, law enforcement and sanctions, a recommendation for improving compliance and data protection. In addition, the law is crucial for ensuring compliance and data protection in electronic medical records implementation in hospitals. However, compliance levels have not reached optimal levels. To improve security, awareness, and enforcement, collaboration with legal bodies, and educational initiatives are needed. Legislation like HIPAA and GDPR influence data protection measures, but penalties are insufficient. To enhance compliance, medical personnel should undergo rigorous training and improve oversight of health data management procedures

This review chapter provides an in-depth exploration of various aspects of data security, ranging from foundational principles to advanced techniques. It sheds light on the importance of maintaining confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data and presents a comprehensive overview of technologies and methodologies that can be employed to achieve robust data security. In today's digital age, ensuring the security and protection of data has become paramount. This research chapter explores various topics related to data security, including confidentiality, integrity, and availability. It also delves into the role of blockchain technology, zero-trust architecture, secure coding practices, legal and ethical considerations, homomorphic encryption, secure multi-party computation, hash functions and digital signatures, secure communication protocols, cryptocurrency and blockchain security, as well as cryptanalysis and side-channel attacks.It highlights various techniques and technologies that can be employed to protect data confidentiality, including encryption and access control mechanisms. Blockchain technology has emerged as a groundbreaking solution for enhancing data security. Zero-trust architecture challenges traditional security models by adopting a holistic and dynamic approach to data protection. Secure coding practices and DevSecOps play a vital role in developing secure software applications. The chapter investigates the importance of integrating security measures throughout the software development lifecycle. It emphasizes the adoption of secure coding practices and the implementation of DevSecOps methodologies to build resilient and secure software systems. Legal and ethical considerations are crucial when addressing data security. Homomorphic encryption and secure multi-party computation are advanced cryptographic techniques that allow data to be processed securely while encrypted. The chapter examines the principles and applications of these techniques, highlighting their significance in scenarios where privacy is paramount. Hash functions and digital signatures form the backbone of data authentication and integrity. The chapter discusses the properties and applications of hash functions and digital signatures in verifying the integrity and authenticity of data. Secure communication protocols are essential for protecting data during transmission. The chapter explores various secure communication protocols, such as Transport Layer Security (TLS), and examines their role in ensuring data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. Cryptocurrency and blockchain security focus on the secure storage and transfer of digital assets. The research chapter investigates the security considerations specific to cryptocurrencies and explores how block chain technology can mitigate vulnerabilities and ensure the trustworthiness of transactions. Cryptanalysis and side-channel attacks are threats to cryptographic systems. The chapter discusses these attack techniques, highlighting their potential risks and the measures that can be taken to counter them.

MD5 and SHA-1 are the two known Hash Algorithms which are widely applied in information security. They are both developed from MD4. This paper introduces their algorithm logic in detail and their realization using C Language, and compares them through software testing, forms, etc. And finally, we draw a conclusion.

For verification and authentication of the video material and recovery of the original video several security mechanisms are required. The security techniques to realize this solution are introduced in [1]: The verification of the integrity is verified by hash functions. Authenticity is verified by digital signatures using asymmetric cryptography and hash functions. The introduced scheme from [1] uses RSA signatures. The private key of the digital signature mechanism is used to sign the data and the corresponding public key is used for verification of the encrypted data. If the data can be verified the corresponding private key was used for the digital signature generation and the data seems to be authentic as well integer. Furthermore the original content can be reproduced by inverting of the watermark with the well know techniques of Fridrich et al. [2]. Additional secret key cryptography (symmetric crypt function) protects the reproduction. The invertibility is necessary, because we use a digital watermark to embed the authentication message and signature into the media itself. Digital watermark, in this application fragile watermark, changes the data and the original data cannot be reconstructing. To invert the data, the watermark must be removed and the original data reconstructed. The watermark embeds the information into a non visual or acoustical channel of the data after the original data of the channel were compressed and encrypted. The compression realizes the new space for the watermark consisting of the encrypted selected data and security information.

Introduction: in the design of information security systems importance is the modeling of security threats, which implies the definition of a list of software threats to the information system, on the basis of which decisions are made to neutralize actual threats. Today the number of urgent threats to information security is increasing, due to the complexity of the infrastructure, information processing technologies, and unprotected communication channels. In this regard, the goal is to simulate security threats in geographically distributed information systems. The analysis of foreign and Russian methodologies for threat modeling showed problems associated with a large amount of data for modeling, as well as expert methods. It has been established that to solve the problem posed use machine learning methods, the theory of adaptive fuzzy neural production systems with fuzzy inference algorithms and the use of Data Science technologies when processing large amounts of data. The paper uses such data protection methods as data protection tools, based on fuzzy neural security systems, it is proposed to determine the actual threats to information security. The proposed methodology is automated and hypothetically eliminates expert errors, increases the number of frequently used topical threats to information security, reduces financial costs for the purchase of information security tools, differs in that the process is automated, has low computational complexity, there is no need attracting highly qualified specialists, allows you to determine the list of actual threats in systems of various types and classes, can be adapted to work with databases. The practical significance lies in the automation of the process — the development of a computer program that implements the proposed methodology. Discussion: further research is advisable to continue determining the best parameters of adaptive fuzzy neural production systems and fuzzy inference algorithms.

The Government and industry are currently using information and communication technology a lot. The Government and companies in Indonesia have regulations on operational standards and management procedures for information and communication systems security at Government regarding implementing information system security. Information security is essential because there are many threats to information security. Information security in this era of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is fundamental. Information Exchange Environment (IEE) vulnerabilities have increased as threats become more widespread and complex; therefore, information security has become a fundamental problem for businesses, organizations, and governments. So, in this paper, we will explain the review of the impact of Information Security For Government and companies in terms of threats and types of information security. Some security system methods are analyzed, among others—application Security, cloud security, Cryptography, security infrastructure, Incident response, and vulnerability management. The results of this review analysis, it known threat has several solutions, each depending on the type of threat for both the Government and the Company. Furthermore, Information Security is considered very important, especially for data stored in Government and companies.

Automation of production processes of enterprise today has enormous scales. The spread of automated control systems of technological processes (ACSTP) and their integration with corporate information systems have led to increase in proportion of successfully implemented malicious impacts on ACSTP. Occurrence of new types of attacks and increase in number of successfully implemented attacks cause the need to form protection systems of industrial systems. Designing protection system of ACSTP is multi-stage process, starting with collection of data on object of protection, its main components, information assets, links with other systems, and identification of relevant information security threats to the system. In this article analysis of structure of typical automated control system of technological process is carried out. The most important components of ACSTP from the point of view of information security are identified. The article defines the need to form project of protection system of ACSTP on the basis of monitoring data of events that occur in ACSTP. Main classes of system events from the point of view of information security are defined. The most typical information security threats for this type of automated systems are considered. Neutralization of groups of threats relevant to ACSTP is carried out by means of forming effective protection system. The typical composition of data protection system of ACSTP is defined. According to results of analysis, the correspondence between security events of ACSTP, current threat groups and typical means of information protection is determined. Choosing the composition of information security tools is complex task that requires a lot of time. To achieve greater efficiency in its solving, it is proposed to use decision support system and system of artificial intelligence. Authors developed functional model of selection of protection system's project using intelligent method of decision support with neural network in it.

Ziel und MethodeKurzübersicht, basierend auf gesetzlichen Vorgaben, individuellen Erfahrungen aus der täglichen Praxis und ausgewählten Referenzen der aktuellen Literatur.Ergebnisse (selektive Eckpunkte):Informationssicherheit und Datenschutz sind gesetzlich vorgeschriebene und unverzichtbare Elemente allgemeinen, beruflichen und sozialen Handelns, die auch ins Qualitätsmanagement (QM) eingehen, dem auch der (Allgemein-/Viszeral-)Chirurg in seinem Wirken untersteht.InformationssicherheitSie bezeichnet den Schutz von Informationen jeglicher Art und Herkunft - sie dient der Sicherstellung der Grundziele Vertraulichkeit, Integrität, Verfügbarkeit und Authentizität von Informationen, die die beiden Ziele des Klinikers, Patientensicherheit und Behandlungseffektivität, unterstützt.DatenschutzEs handelt sich dabei um ein Grundrecht zum Schutz vor missbräuchlicher Verarbeitung personenbezogener Daten - dabei ist nicht der Schutz der Daten, sondern das Recht des Einzelnen auf informationelle Selbstbestimmung das Schutzziel.IT-NotfallmanagementEs umfasst, dass man im IT-Notfall (ausgelöst z. B. durch Systemausfall oder Cyberangriff) geordnet und unterbrechungsfrei in einen vorher definierten klinischen Notfallbetrieb wechselt - aus digitalen werden in ausschließlicher Instituts- bzw. Klinikverantwortung befindliche analoge Prozesse.SchlussfolgerungVon einem regelmäßigen bilateralen Austausch zwischen dem (Allgemein-/Viszeral-)Chirurgen und den Beauftragten für Informationssicherheit und Datenschutz profitieren beide Seiten gleichermaßen. Sie sind dadurch in der Lage, die gemeinsamen Ziele der Patientensicherheit und der Behandlungseffektivität durch eine verhältnismäßige Integration von Informationssicherheit und Datenschutz in den klinischen Alltag sicher zu stellen.

PurposeTo investigate the links between IC and the protection of data, information and knowledge in universities, as organizations with unique knowledge-related foci and challenges.Design/methodology/approachThe authors gathered insights from existing IC-related research publications to delineate key foundational aspects of IC, identify and propose links to traditional information security that impact the protection of IC. They conducted interviews with key stakeholders in Australian universities in order to validate these links.FindingsThe authors’ investigation revealed two kinds of embeddedness characterizing the organizational fabric of universities: (1) vertical and (2) horizontal, with an emphasis on the connection between these and IC-related knowledge protection within these institutions.Research limitations/implicationsThere is a need to acknowledge the different roles played by actors within the university and the relevance of information security to IC-related preservation.Practical implicationsFraming information security as an IC-related issue can help IT security managers communicate the need for knowledge security with executives in higher education, and secure funding to preserve and secure such IC-related knowledge, once its value is recognized.Originality/valueThis is one of the first studies to explore the connections between data and information security and the three core components of IC's knowledge security in the university context.

Recently, formal complexity-theoretic treatment of cryptographic hash functions was suggested. Two primitives of Collision-free hash functions and Universal one-way hash function families have been defined. The primitives have numerous applications in secure information compression, since their security implies that finding collisions is computationally hard. Most notably, Naor and Yung have shown that the most secure signature scheme can be reduced to the existence of universal one-way hash (this, in turn, gives the first trapdoor-less provably secure signature scheme).In this work, we first present reductions from various one-way function families to universal one-way hash functions. Our reductions are general and quite efficient and show how to base universal one-way hash functions on any of the known concrete candidates for one-way functions. We then show equivalences among various definitions of hardness for collision-free hash functions.

In today's rapidly evolving digital landscape, cybersecurity and information security are crucial for safeguarding critical assets across organizations and individuals. Cybersecurity focuses on protecting internet-connected systems, including hardware, software, and data, from cyber-attacks. In contrast, information security ensures the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information, regardless of its digital or physical form. Although these terms are sometimes used interchangeably, they represent distinct concepts and methodologies, addressing specific threats and risks within the digital ecosystem. This review examines the differences and overlaps between cybersecurity and information security, highlighting their intersection in creating comprehensive protection strategies. While cybersecurity addresses external threats such as malware, phishing, and hacking, information security focuses on policies and procedures to prevent breaches—whether accidental or intentional. Recent trends, regulatory requirements, and the increasing complexity of cyber threats underscore the importance of adopting robust security measures. This article also explores the impact of cyber-attacks, including financial losses, reputational damage, and legal consequences stemming from noncompliance with data protection regulations. Additionally, the role of emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, and blockchain, in enhancing the security landscape is discussed. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of a unified approach integrating cybersecurity and information security to mitigate risks effectively and ensure the long-term protection of sensitive data.

Diante do transformar de nossa sociedade, novos padrões de segurança e privacidade deverão serem adotados, nesse caso, voltado ao espaço cibernético, onde os dados e as informações são de suma importância para sua existência. Cada vez mais as profissões se misturam com o direito e com a tecnologia, e na área da saúde não é diferente, inclusive quando se trata de lei de proteção de dados, pois essa não é uma tarefa para o TI, advogado, é para o DPO – Data Protection Officer, também conhecido como encarregado de proteção de dados. O profissional poderá alegar o desconhecimento do direito à proteção de dados dos titulares? Ambientes médicos, assim como os profissionais e seus auxiliares deverão com celeridade buscar aprimorar seus processos de segurança da informação e Compliance para que a proteção de dados seja garantida, visto que a privacidade é um Direito Fundamental. O aprimoramento não está relacionado exclusivamente a seara dos técnicos de informática, mas aos funcionários, aos profissionais da saúde, aos ambientes de saúde tanto públicos quanto privados, também não apenas na área digital, mas também no ambiente físico.