History Carved on a Tombstone

The study of India is a very rich field, not least because of the religious diversity present in India. India has not only exported Buddhism to the rest of Asia but has also received religious traditions from the West (of India), notably Christianity – in the first century AD – and Islam – in the eighth century AD. How do scholars explain this importation of foreign religion? Some argue that ‘religion’ is an anachronistic term to use in the study of India, as Indian languages generally lack a word for ‘religion’, with the closest term, dharma , meaning ‘way of life’ rather than ‘religion’. If this is so, then how can we understand Indians who converted to monotheistic faiths that claim universal truth when we cannot even say for sure from what they ‘converted’? Not all of these questions have answers, but this article will explore the historiography of conversion to Christianity and Islam in India to try to get a sense of what the scholarly community has to say about conversion in India and also to see what this same group conspicuously chooses to ignore. It will focus on Christianity and will explore Islam to the extent that the comparison can further elucidate an understanding of Christianity in India.

خوارج به عنوان یکی از گروه های مؤثر در حوادث قرون اولیه هجری، برای خوارج به عنوان یکی از گروه های مؤثر در حوادث قرون اولیه هجری، برای نخستین بار در دوره خلافت حضرت علی(ع) و در جریان جنگ صفین به عنوان یک فرقه مستقل پدیدار گشتند و به مخالفت با جریان حکمیت برخاستند. با انتقال خلافت به امویان، خوارج از همان آغاز رو در روی آنان ایستادند و قیام های متعددی را علیه بنی امیه ایجاد کردند. به همین سبب تحت تعقیب حکام اموی قرار گرفتند و عده ای از این گروه ناگزیر به سرزمین های اطراف و از جمله ایران گریختند. سیستان از مهمترین مناطق نفوذ خوارج در ایران دوره اموی محسوب می شد. در این مقاله، ضمن بررسی عوامل زمینه ساز قیام های خوارج در دو منطقه سیستان وعراق؛ به بررسی تطبیقی عوامل اشتراک و افتراق قیام های خوارج در این دو منطقه پرداخته شده است. براین اساس پرسش اساسی این مقاله آن است که «قیام های خوارج در سیستان و عراق در دورة اموی» دارای چه نقاط اشتراک و افتراقی بودند؟ رهیافت این مقاله آنکه قیام های خوارج در سیستان وعراق با اینکه دارای شیوه مبارزاتی مشابهی بودند و به علل مشترکی شکست خوردند، اما دارای ایدئولوژی، اهداف، ساخت و درون مایه های متفاوتی بودند و در نهایت نتایج متفاوتی در جامعه عصر خلافت اموی پدید آوردند.

While commentary on the productivity of Irish pastures can be dated as far back as 55 BC, direct references to the different kinds of soil only begin in the eighth century AD. Early scientific information on Irish soils typically came from the endeavours of geologists or other professionals who studied rock and outcropping patterns. The Geological Survey of Ireland, a constituent of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, developed small-scale county soil maps, largely for the southern counties in the mid-1800s. In relation to pedology, John Hodges, an Irish soil analyst described soil profiles in the 1850s in terms identical with those dated to the Dokuchaev School in 1880s Russia. Soil science in Ireland has typically been delivered with agricultural and environmental science at University level. Agricultural extension dates back to 1731 through the Dublin Society employment of itinerant instructors. The soil test, pioneered by P H Gallagher in the 1930s became the single most important tool for the advisory service. In their essays on the characteristics of Irish soil types he, together with Dr. Tom Walsh, laid the groundwork for future classification and mapping. In 1945, the Department of Agriculture established a research centre at Johnstown Castle, Co. Wexford. The soil division of An Foras Taluntais was headquartered there and the National Soil Survey of Ireland established. In 1980 the second edition, General Soil Map of Ireland, was published. This survey was discontinued in 1988. In 1998, the Spatial Analysis Unit was established in Teagasc a key output of which was the first nationally complete digital subsoil and indicative soil map in 2009. Not long after, the 3rd Edition National Soil Map of Ireland was launched in 2014, through the collaboration of the Spatial Analysis Unit and Teagasc Johnstown Castle.

Unani System of Medicine is also known as Greco-Arabic medicine, and developed into an elaborate scientific medical system by Arab and Persian physicians, such as Rhazes (850-925AD), Avicenna (980-1037AD), Al-Zahrawi and Ibn Nafis. It is practiced in India since eighth century AD and is a recognized Indian traditional system of medicine with good infrastructure for education; research and manufacturing unitswhich are well regulated by the Government. In Unani medicine there are well developed pharmacopeia and pharmaceutical processings for single & compound formulations for the treatment of several local and systemic ailments. The most important formulation among various Unani formulations is Sharbat-e-Unnab, a Unani pharmaceutical preparation acting as Dafa-e-Sual (antitussive), Khashunat-e-Halaq (sore throat), Musaffi-e-Khoon (blood purifier), Musakkin-e-Hiddat-e-Khoon (suppressive blood heat) etc. Unnab (Ziziphus jujuba Mill. / Jujube) fruit is the main ingredient of the formulation. Unnab is also an ingredient of Unani Joshanda which has been recommended for relief in upper respiratory tract symptoms in mild cases of COVID-19. Few scientific studies related to Sharbat Unnab have been conducted in problems like Acne vulgaris and Primary Hypertension. Apart from this Unnab, the main ingredient has also been studied for its antioxidant and anti-cancerous activities. This formulation is being used by Unani physicians since time immemorial. Therefore, this paper will describe the brief review of the formulation along with its ingredient.
 Keywords: Sharbat-e-Unnab, Unani medicine, Sharbat, Unnab, Ziziphus Jujuba Mill.

The use of tar and resinous substances dates back far into Scandinavian prehistory. How it was produced, however, was unknown until recent excavations in eastern Sweden revealed funnel-shaped features—now identified as structures for producing tar. A new way of organising tar production appeared in the eighth century AD, leading to large-scale manufacture within outland forests. Intensified Viking Age maritime activities probably increased the demand for tar, which also became an important trade commodity. The transition to intensive tar manufacturing implies new ways of organising production, labour, forest management and transportation, which influenced the structure of Scandinavian society and connected forested outlands with the world economy.

This article examines the political discourse of the Kharijites who appeared as an opposition group in the fourth decade of the first century AH / seventh century AD, after the Battle of Siffin and the arbitration between ‘Ali and Mu‘awiyah in 38 AH / 659 AD. The article follows the historical developments that the political discourse of the Kharijites underwent before they crystallized into a religious sect at the end of the Umayyad period and collapsed at the start of the Abbasid period and studies the political slogans and values expressed in their political discourse about the Imamate. Throughout Islamic history, political and doctrinal discourses have appeared for both the rulers and the opposition. However, the Kharijites connected their political discourse to their religious ideology, as well as to their Bedouin nature. The political principles of the Kharijites centered on the freedom to choose the caliph or the imam, not restricted to the Quraish

Los impuestos que exigieron los monarcas cristianos de sus súbditos mudéjares muestran que su economía estaba regulada por las leyes islámicas y los usos árabes que había implantado la familia omeya en el siglo VIII y que habían ido evolucionando de un modo similar al de muchas otras sociedades islámicas. El nexo establecido entre esta fiscalidad andalusí y la realidad mudéjar sirve para explicar la naturaleza de los múltiples impuestos que tuvieron que pagar los mudéjares y para arrojar una luz sobre la economía andalusí de la que las fuentes árabes revelan pocos datos. Se establece la relación entre ambos sistemas tributarios, definiendo el contenido de cada tributo.

The Traditions Of War And Combat In The Central Maghreb During The 7th. - 8th. Centuries AH. / 13th. -14th. Centuries AD.

Stephanos of Alexandria exerted a powerful influence on the rhetorical practice of Greek writers of the seventh and eighth centuries, one that is visible in four alchemical poems often preserved together in manuscript under the names of Heliodoros, Theophrastos, Hierotheos and Archelaos. Close analysis of style and content has led to the conclusions that these poems are the work of one anonymous writer who lived after the time of Stephanos, and that all are versifications of passages from his Great and Sacred Art of the Making of Gold. The following poem ascribed to Theophrastos was probably written by a Byzantine sophist between the years 700 and 900 AD.

The history of Cairo is usually presented in terms of periods and dynasties such as the Fatimid or Ayyubid. The modern history of Egypt is generally held to begin in the last decades of the nineteenth century with the emergence of a new, modern city, constructed by the Khedives of Egypt along European lines. This illustrated book examines Cairo from the first century AH / seventh century AD until the present, considering the relationships between the physical layout of the city and its historic buildings, its economy, and its social, cultural, and religious life. The book discusses the programs of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, both for restoring historic monuments in the district of al-Darb al-Ahmar and for reviving and improving the social and economic life of the old city. It also seeks to convey what the residents of the old city think about these projects, to clarify what, if any, is the felt relationship between the great monuments like Bab al-Zuwayla and the people who live nearby and what can be learned from this experience for similar restoration projects in other parts of the world. No previous book has dealt with Cairo across so wide a range of periods and subjects, examining the relationships between the inhabitants of Cairo and their city and the relationships between past and present. Economics, architecture, and religious practices in past ages all have reverberations in the present. The contributors range from academics with expertise in Islamic history and architecture, such as Nasser Rabbat and Roy Mottahedeh, to the personnel who were engaged in the restoration projects. A DVD of the film Living with the Past: Historic Cairo (2001, 56 minutes, directed by Maysoon Pachachi for Echo Productions, produced by Elizabeth Fernea) accompanies the book. It portrays al-Darb al-Ahmar, a neighborhood in the heart of the old city, and follows several interwoven restoration projects undertaken with a unique approach combining conservation with social, cultural, and economic neighborhood schemes that aim not only to rescue endangered monuments but also to preserve the spirit and vitality of the community.

Evaluation and utilization of lemongrass oil nanoemulsion for disinfection of documentary heritage based on parchment

To start the case study section of this book, I begin with an area that has an ancient Islamic identity. Moroccans, in the form of Berbers who converted to the faith, participated in great numbers in the conquest of the Iberian peninsula beginning in 711 c.e . The officer who led the campaigns was Berber. At this juncture the area we now call Morocco was under limited control from the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus and its governor in Qayrawan, the main city in Tunisia. Morocco began to acquire a regional identity, as distinguished from Tunisia and Algeria, in the late eighth century c.e . This came when a descendant of the Prophet settled in the area, and since that time the rulers of Morocco have claimed a genealogical connection to Muhammad. They refer to their monarchy as the “Sharifian throne.” But this Islamic identity at the center of Moroccan life has not always brought satisfaction or prosperity to its citizens. In this chapter we look at what it has meant, over the centuries, to be Muslim in a state with a strong Islamic identity. The Beginnings The name Morocco means “far west” in Arabic, because the region stood at the westernmost limits of the Islamic world. One of the early Arab generals rode his horse into the Atlantic Ocean before turning back, and shortly after that the combined Arab and Berber force crossed the straits and started the Spanish Muslim regime we call Andalusia.

The racist policies and practices of many Umayyad caliphs caused serious crises which would undermine the Islamic social structure. The non-Arab (the Mawali) peoples of the empire, who were victims of the difficult circumstances in this period, had been exposed to unfair and discriminatory laws on the basis of race due to these caliphs’ chauvinist attitudes. The transition of the caliphate from the Umayyads to the Abbasids would enable the Mawali elements to react against the Arabism. In the middle of the eighth century, the Islamic world witnessed the genesis of a literary and scholarly movement which would be called as the Shuubiyya. The representatives of the movement (the Shuubis), the majority of whom were Persians, reacted to Arab racism with their works and studies in various fields such as literature, history and translation. One of the two tasks of the current paper is to determine the impact of Persian statesmen and high-ranking officials on the development of the Shuubiyya movement. The other is to scrutinize and compare modern researchers’ different arguments about the ultimate target of the Shuubis. In the light of present knowledge and findings, the conclusion which this study reaches is that the Shuubiyya, whose Persian supporters played an active role in the spread of its doctrine, was an apolitical movement.

This first introduction by the editors provides an overview of the chapter contributions, structured with specific commentaries for each of the three parts of the book (Modalities of Rhythm; Sites and Practices; and Rhythmanalysis). More broadly, the introduction sets out the underlying critical and historical themes. Overall, the account provides the book with its underlying critical concept of rhythm that is not simply about beat and measure, but of a particular sense of a changeable form, and which is as much spatial as it is temporal (something which becomes of apparent in recent critical thinking about rhythm). Thus, through this etymological, historical and critical account, the term rhuthmós helps establishing an overarching understanding of rhythm and related themes as picked up in varying ways throughout the book.

The Pig in Irish Cuisine and Culture