How immediate is language understanding? Investigating reading in real time

.The present study explored how average- and high-skilled second-grade readers (as identified by their Woodcock-Johnson III Test of Academic Achievement Broad Reading scores) differed on behavioral measures of reading related to comprehension: eye movements during silent reading and prosody during oral reading. Results from silent reading implicate word processing efficiency: high skilled readers had fewer fixations and intraword regressions, and shorter first fixation, gaze duration, and total word reading times. Their skipping and regression patterns during silent reading were representative of a more systematic approach to passage reading, suggesting that meta-cognitive or motivational factors may also differentiate the groups. Compared to high-skilled readers, average readers' oral reading was characterized by longer pauses, less differentiation across pause types, and more intrusions. Counter to prior research, aspects of prosody associated with expressivity favored average readers: they had a sharper pitch declination at the end of declarative sentences and used a wider range of pitch within sentences. High- and low-frequency target words yielded frequency effects during both silent and oral reading. Interactions with skill level on the oral reading task are discussed in terms of potential differences in strategic approaches to reading challenges.

The effects of reading mode and braille reading patterns on braille reading speed and comprehension: A study of students with visual impairments in China

Vowel length is known to affect reaction times in single word reading. Eye movement studies involving silent sentence reading showed that phonological information of a word can be acquired even before it is fixated. However, it remained an open question whether vowel length directly influences oculomotor control in sentence reading. In the present eye tracking study, subjects read sentences that included target words of varying vowel length and frequency. In Experiment 1, subjects read silently for comprehension, whereas Experiment 2 involved oral reading. Experiments 3 and 4 additionally included an articulatory suppression task and a foot tapping task. Results indicated that in conditions that did not require additional articulation (Experiments 1 and 4) gaze durations were increased for words with long vowels compared to words with short vowels. Conditions that required simultaneous articulation (Experiments 2 and 3) did not yield a vowel length effect. The results point to an influence of phonetic properties on oculomotor control during silent reading around the time of the completion of lexical access.

The effect of single syllable silent reading and pantomime speech in varied syllable positions on stuttering frequency throughout utterance productions

Reading in some form occupies a large share of the curriculum of both lower and upper grades. In the first grade the time is almost wholly occupied in teaching children how to read; and, oral reading predominates. As the child progresses through the grades the time devoted to oral reading gradually diminishes and the time devoted to silent reading increases. These two forms of reading have entirely different aims. Oral reading above the primary grades aims to convey the thought to some hearer. Correct pronunciation, clear expression, and good enunciation are, therefore, necessary in the oral work. These, however, are only the mechanics which enable the reader to con vey the thought which he has in mind with force and understand ing. In silent reading, on the other hand, the aim is to teach the pupil to obtain the thought from the printed page for himself. This silent reading is followed by some form of reproduction either at once or at some future time. Until recently the teacher of the upper elementary grades has not felt the importance of teaching silent reading. Even now it is very probable that she does not realize the full importance of this teaching. Reading, oral or silent, means the recognition of the printed word as a sym bol and a correct interpretation of the symbol into a picture for which the symbol stands. Factors in Silent Reading

The complementary view of strategy combinations points to the fact that a combination of strategies that promote memory encoding and retrieval practice strategies can be effective in improving memory retention. This study examines the effectiveness of the combination of oral reading and retrieval practice strategies and the effect of the development of reading patterns on their effectiveness. This study designed a mixed experimental design of 3 (grades: Grade three, Grade five, college students) × 2 (reading mode: oral reading and silent reading) × 2 (learning strategies: re-learning and retrieval practice). Among them, reading mode is the within-subject variable, and learning strategy and grade are the between-subjects variables. The dependent variable is the ratio of specific words recalled in the final test. The results show that the oral and retrieval practice is a significant and effective combination of memory strategies for primary school students who are mainly oral reading or in the transition from oral reading to silent reading. It is significantly better than the three strategy combinations of oral reading combined with re-leaning, silent reading combined with re-learning, and silent reading combined with retrieval practice. For adult students who dominated silent reading, silent reading combined with retrieval practice is the best memory strategy.

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes* This paper extends an analysis reported by the writer in Educational Trends III, April 1934, pp. 7-13.

ABSTRACTThe history of reading is a comparatively recent field. Work to date has been diverse both in period and methodology, ranging from case studies of individuals to statistical analyses of populations. This diversity means that it can be hard to discern either a broadly agreed narrative of reading practices or a clear set of debates. However, a range of scholars have emphasized contrasts between intensive and extensive reading, oral and silent reading, utilitarian and recreational reading, and public and private reading. These contrasts have been aligned with historical periods, with oral reading, for example, being associated with early modern reading in contrast to later periods. This article analyses the reading practices of Samuel Pepys and concludes that his example supports a contrast between a more intensive, oral, utilitarian, and public reading in the seventeenth century and that of later periods. Pepys's reading practices are also shown to have profound effects on his interpretation of texts. He sees texts of all genres as scripts to be performed by particular individuals, and judges them according to their suitability for this performance in a specific context.

Results of Leinhardt, Zigmond, and Cooley (1981) have been interpreted as support for increased silent reading in classroom reading instruction. Leinhardt et al. examined a causal model of classroom processes influencing reading achievement and showed that time spent in silent, rather than oral, reading was positively related to gains in reading achievement. The present study reanalyzed the Leinhardt et al. data using linear structural equation modeling. We show that students’ entry-level reading abilities had a significant direct effect on time spent in silent reading but no such effect on time spent on oral or “indirect” reading. When entry-level abilities were more adequately controlled, silent reading no longer showed a significant effect on posttest reading performance. Under alternative models of the data, there is even the suggestion that time spent in oral reading had more effect on final reading achievement.

Aim. The purpose of the study is to look into the visuomotor reaction time (simple and complex reaction time) of combat sports athletes. Material and method. Sixty-eight participants (M age = 21.85) took part in the research. For assessing simple reaction time and choice reaction time two computerized tests were used (TRS and RCMV, respectively), calibrated on the Romanian population by RQ Plus company. Results. Analysis of variances and Tukey post-hoc test for equal variances were performed to verify the differences in terms of choice and simple reaction time, according to martial arts athletes’ sports level. Also, gender-related differences were examined (considering the visuomotor reaction time), using the Goodman and Kruskal tau association test. Data analysis showed that athletes with superior results in competitions registered a faster choice reaction time (even if the difference was not statistically significant). Considering simple reaction time values, the difference between combat sports athletes (according to sports performances) was almost nonexistent. Also, male athletes obtained better values for simple reaction time and slightly better results for choice reaction time than female athletes. Conclusions. Combat sports athletes having international performances registered better values for choice reaction time, compared to athletes having national, respectively regional/local results. A significant link was found between athletes’ gender and martial arts athletes’ results for simple reaction time, with male athletes obtaining better scores.

: The current study investigates the relationship between simple reaction time, choice reaction time, and eye-hand coordination with peripheral vision in elite female table tennis players. Ten female table tennis players of the Iranian national team with a mean age of 19.7 ± 5.964, in the 18th Asian Games of 2018, Jakarta, participated via convenience sampling. The visual field was evaluated with the Humphrey automated perimetry. Choice and simple reaction time were assessed using Deary-Liewald reaction time tester software. In order to measure eye-hand coordination, the manual test of alternate-hand wall toss was used. Data were analyzed in statistical package for the social sciences using Pearson’s correlation. The results show that there was no significant relationship between simple and choice reaction time with peripheral vision in the left and right eyes. Also, results show that there was no significant relationship between eye-hand coordination with peripheral vision in the left and right eyes (P ≤ 0.05). The findings of this study show that experts in an activity visually searched their environment and located essential information more effectively and efficiently than novices. Therefore, we know that this visual feature is more a function of expertise than visual acuity.

In this study the researcher investigated the relative effects of different reading methods on the comprehension performance of the students. The scores of participants who read three comparable passages in three ways (oral, silent and subvocalizing) were compared. Results revealed a significant difference between oral reading and subvocalization, and between oral reading and silent reading. Oral reading had the greatest effect on comprehension performance among the three reading methods examined. All groups reported that oral reading was the most preferred reading method with the majority of respondents feeling the style best supported comprehension. Feedback suggested that oral reading was preferred specifically because it helps in memorizing words and texts, concentration, and practicing and pronouncing words for real world encounters. It is recommended that second language lecturers and students use all available reading methods in order to identify which method best serves their study objectives.

In this study the researcher investigated the relative effects of different reading methods on the comprehension performance of Balikpapan Foreign Language Academy EFL Third Semester students. The scores of participants who read three comparable passages in three ways (oral, silent and subvocalizing) were compared. Results revealed a significant difference between oral reading and subvocalization, and between oral reading and silent reading. Oral reading had the greatest effect on comprehension performance among the three reading methods examined. All groups reported that oral reading was the most preferred reading method with the majority of respondents feeling the style best supported comprehension. Feedback suggested that oral reading was preferred specifically because it helps in memorizing words and texts, concentration, and practicing and pronouncing words for real world encounters. It is recommended that second language lecturers and students use all available reading methods in order to identify which method best serves their study objectives.

Classroom noise levels often exceed recommendations and, in large scale retrospective studies, it has been suggested that higher noise levels often correlate significantly with poorer academic performance [e.g., Shield., et al. (2002)]. However, experimental data on the performance of individual children are limited. This study therefore examined the effect of noise on the performance of children in grades 3–4 and 7–8 on standardized tests of oral reading, silent reading, and vocabulary (the Gray Oral Reading Test, the Gray Silent Reading Test, and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test). Each child completed parallel forms of a test in quiet and in classroom noise presented at 60 dB SPL. Required speech was presented at +10 S/N. Results from grouped data showed significantly reduced performance in noise only on the silent reading task and only for the older group of children. However, across tasks, when the effects of noise were evaluated as a function of childrens quiet performance levels, the noise effect was shown to be significant for the children performing at above average levels in quiet. These findings suggest that the effect of classroom noise may vary significantly across tasks and children. [Work supported by CLLRNet.]

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that modulates cortical excitability and influences motor behavior. There is limited information available regarding the effects of anodal tDCS on lower limb reaction time. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of anodal tDCS on lower limb simple reaction time (SRT) and choice reaction time (CRT). We probed this question further by examining the effects of anodal tDCS of the lower limb M1 on an upper limb RT task and a cognitive measure. Fourteen healthy young adults received anodal tDCS and sham tDCS to the lower limb M1 on two separate testing days in a counterbalanced order. After stimulation, we assessed the effects of tDCS on ankle dorsiflexion SRT and CRT, ankle plantarflexion SRT and CRT, wrist extension SRT and CRT and the symbol digit modality test (SDMT). Anodal tDCS significantly improved response times from baseline for ankle CRT but not for ankle SRT or wrist SRT or CRT. A significant decrement (i.e., longer response time) was noted for the sham tDCS conditions. There was a significant difference between anodal and sham conditions for all RT tasks, suggesting that anodal tDCS improved RT compared to sham. No change in SDMT scores was observed for both conditions. Anodal tDCS appeared to differentially modulate ankle SRT and CRT, suggesting an influence of anodal tDCS on complex motor processes and/or the supplementary motor area. Absence of effects on wrist CRT or SDMT suggests a spatial specificity of the influence of tDCS. Anodal tDCS also appears to potentially negate the effects of fatigue or task switching that was detrimental to RT in the sham condition.