I. EC Maritime Transport Law and Policy

Prelims

The shipping industry, particularly containerized cargo transport, plays a vital role in global trade, but it is also a significant contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. With increasing pressure to reduce carbon footprints and achieve sustainability targets, the U.S. maritime sector is seeking innovative solutions to lower its environmental impact. Optimizing fuel usage, improving operational efficiencies, and adopting alternative fuels are essential strategies to decarbonize maritime transport. However, these complex challenges require sophisticated tools for simulating and analyzing different fuel and routing strategies. The US Department of Energy, Advanced Research Projects Agency - Energy funded a project to focuses on developing an advanced decision-support tool to optimize fuel deployment and intermodal freight routing for domestic container shipping in the U.S., aiming to reduce GHG emissions and improve operational efficiency. This project aims to develop an advanced decision-support tool that leverages modeling and simulation to optimize fuel deployment and intermodal freight route planning for domestic container shipping across U.S. maritime corridors. The tool's central goal is to simulate and assess vessel operations, considering both environmental impact and operational efficiency, with a focus on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through intelligent fuel selection and optimized routing strategies. The project will integrate traditional oil-based vessel technologies with alternative/Low emission fuels, specifically methanol and ammonia/hydrogen, to evaluate these technologies' potential for decarbonizing the maritime sector. The modeling scope encompasses several critical aspects of container shipping operations: it will simulate container and containership movements across key U.S. maritime routes, including both open sea and inland waterways (e.g., from Los Angeles to Seattle). The simulation will track vessel movements in real-time, incorporating key operational events such as departures, arrivals, refueling, and port dwell times. The model will identify and analyze a range of domestic vessel types, initially using baseline information on oil-powered ships and comparing them with vessels using alternative fuels. This comparison will allow for an evaluation of energy consumption, operational efficiency, and emissions reductions achievable with different fuel mixes. A key feature of the model will be its ability to estimate energy consumption and emissions under various operating conditions. The model will take into account a broad range of factors, such as cargo weight, vessel type, sea currents, wind conditions, and route specifics to generate highly accurate simulations of energy usage and emissions per voyage. By using advanced modeling techniques, the tool will create a detailed reduced-order model, informed by real-world operational data, which can be generalized and applied across various domestic corridors and routes. This will allow for scalable insights and flexible application, making the tool useful for a variety of real-world shipping scenarios. The role of advanced modeling and simulation is crucial in enabling the detailed analysis required to understand complex maritime operations. The model will simulate dynamic operational events (such as docking, refueling, or delays) and intermodal transport interactions, optimizing freight routing across different transport modes (water, rail, and truck) to minimize overall GHG emissions. This approach allows for a comprehensive, whole-system analysis that considers both direct emissions from maritime transport and indirect emissions from associated modes of transport. Moreover, the model will interface with external systems simulators, to incorporate data on port-to-port container origin-destination (OD) flows, port storage, and dwell times. These external inputs will be integrated into the model to ensure that port operations, cargo handling, and intermodal logistics are optimized for efficiency and emissions reduction. This integration of multiple data sources and transport modes will enable the simulation to reflect the complexities of the real-world intermodal network, offering insights on how best to allocate freight across water, rail, and road to achieve the lowest possible emissions. Through the use of advanced modeling and simulation, the tool will generate actionable insights to guide policy makers, shipping operators, and environmental regulators in their efforts to decarbonize U.S. domestic shipping. The ability to simulate and compare different fuel types, vessel configurations, and routing strategies will help stakeholders make data-driven decisions that balance economic feasibility with environmental sustainability. Ultimately, the tool will help identify pathways to reduce the carbon footprint of domestic container shipping, offering a roadmap for adopting cleaner, more efficient maritime transport practices while improving operational performance. By enabling the detailed modeling and simulation of complex maritime systems, this project will contribute significantly to the development of sustainable maritime transport policies and technologies, providing a critical resource for advancing the transition to a low-carbon economy in the U.S. shipping sector.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has formulated numerous maritime-related conventions. The promotion of mandatory audits is required to ensure that the implementation of maritime management systems in various countries complies with the IMO Instruments Implementation Code (III Code) and that both member states and non-member states implement these conventions. This is not only an obligation but also a responsibility for all countries to promote the development of the maritime industry. This study investigates how Taiwan, one of the non-member state of the IMO, implements the audit process and develops future implementation strategies for various maritime conventions. This issue is of great significance to Taiwan as an important hub in the international maritime industry. The results of the study reveal that the proactive efforts of government authorities and officials and active participation in audits are considered the most crucial driving factors by most experts. However, more attention should be given to the challenging issues associated with international participation, which currently represent external threats and internal weaknesses. Furthermore, the continuous and proactive participation in audits of relevant IMO regulations is a key strategy for non-member states to maintain long-term strength in the maritime industry. Other non-member states can also refer to Taiwan's experience, strive to keep up with international standards, and seek to join the IMO to contribute to global maritime efforts. In addition, Taiwan’s government should make better use of and continue to support Taiwan’s maritime industry and strong private sector. Moreover, cooperation with international allies is a critical strategy for completing audits and sustaining the development of Taiwan’s maritime industry.

The majority of problems in managing maritime transport originate from fragmented governance. The practice of coordinating decisions across different ports or between port and hinterland can pose a significant challenge in many countries. A related issue is that suggestions for maritime transport governance in the current literature are less clearly focused on the Global South. The present study aimed to identify challenges in improving the governance of maritime transport systems. This paper presents a case study focused on Indonesia to serve as an example from the Global South. We conducted a content analysis of policy and implementation documents to paint a comprehensive picture of contemporary governance practices and the challenges encountered in maritime transport. Here, maritime transport is defined as a system that consists of three main subsystems: port-to-port, within-port, and port-to-hinterland connectivity. Our study illustrates that the same maritime transportation system in the Global South can have different governance patterns with different strengths and weaknesses. We point to the importance for transportation planners and policy makers in the Global South to be aware that fragmentation must be understood in view of these interrelated subsystems, but also that coordination requires a focus on practicalities and thus that less-comprehensive forms of integration may well be legitimate in policy formulation. In improving maritime transport systems, transportation planners and policymakers in the Global South must be aware of the challenge that changes in one sub-system will define other sub-systems while no universal one-fits-all solution for the whole system exists.

Alternative sources of energy as marine fuels; the effect on the environment and the financial perspectives for a more sustainable future in the shipping industry

The transport industry, and especially aviation and maritime transport, emits significant amounts of CO2, adversely affecting the environment. The Sustainable Development Goals not only indicate the need to reduce CO2 emissions, but also to provide access to information on the amount of emissions, on top of their environmental and financial impacts. The main source of this type of information is found in financial and non-financial statements prepared by entities of the transport sector. CO2 reporting disclosures should be subject to the principle of true and fair view ensuring adequate materiality, transparency and comparability of information. The aim of the article is to assess the scope and method of reporting information on CO2 emissions in the financial and non-financial statements of selected groups of the air and maritime transport sector. By means of content analysis, disclosures on this subject were reviewed and compared against the applicable legal regulations in the field of CO2 emissions reporting for the industry. The results of the research indicate a significant differentiation in the methods of reporting, in particular relating to the valuation and presentation of CO2 emission allowances in reports on the financial position in air transport and the manner and scope of reporting non-financial information in maritime transport. The obtained results indicate insufficient comparability of the reported information and a need for harmonisation of the provisions of law regarding the scope and forms of reporting. The findings also indicate a need to combine financial and non-financial information in single reports in order to properly interpret the effects of emissions.

The article analyses the reasons why the volume of transportation by inland waterways in Russia has not recovered after a significant decline in the 1990s, despite a number of advantages that river transport has over other modes of transport. The author analyzes the main factors of the decline for key types of cargo logistics: the dynamics of the cargo base, the impact of structuralshifts in the economy and alternative modes of transportation. The author also notes the almost complete absence of container transportation by inland waterways in Russia and answers the question about the possibility of significant container turnover on the river in the near future. In the second part of the article, the author summarizes the experience of river transportation development in other leading countries: China, the USA and the European Union in terms of transportation volumes by inland waterways, the level of infrastructure development and the profile of transportation by types of cargo. Based on the analysis, the author draws conclusions about promising areas for the development of transportation by inland waterways, the factors restraining this development and the measures that need to be taken from the point of view of the state and business to increase the volume of transportation by inland waterways.

Transport policy is one of the most important factors affecting transport systems in individual countries and in Europe as a whole. This article analyzes and evaluates the impact of the transport policy of Poland and that of the European Union on the development of river transport in Poland. The study focuses on the most important political and strategic documents in force in the European Union and in the Republic of Poland in 2001-2017, containing transport system concepts, including plans of long-term construction and modernization of transport infrastructure that partly involve river transport. It has been assumed that river transport should be a priority in the Polish transport system due to its technical, operational and environmental characteristics, safety, low external costs, increased competitiveness of sea ports and the socio-economic development of regions located along rivers. The European Union has been promoting the development of inland waterway, rail and intermodal modes of transport for years, aiming at the reduction of the share of road freight carriage that adversely affects the environment and intensifies congestions. EU transport policy makers have found it necesary to amend the proportions and to integrate sea, inland waterway and rail transport. The European Commission has recommended to develop river transport for its advantages, such as low environmental impact, safety and energy efficiency. The article analyzes and evaluates the conditions, in terms of institutions, legislation and infrastructure, for the development of inland shipping in Poland.

After the liberalization of the air transportation sector in 2003, we investigate the factors affecting the preference of air transportation as a mode of transportation and the changes in the air transportation preferences of the Turkish households over the years. For this purpose, we analyze the micro datasets of the household budget surveys using logistic regression and decision tree methods. We find that the most critical factors affecting the air transportation preference of the households for the 2003-2017 period are the income level and the occupation of the household head. The fuel expenditures and the existence of transportation subsidies reduce the air transportation preference of the households. In addition, since 2003, there has been a significant increase in the rate of households preferring air transportation in Turkey. So much so that air transportation is the only mode of transportation that has risen over time. A remarkable finding is that air expenditure of the low-income group is not observed in the 2003 survey, whereas it was a small amount in 2017. The literature on transportation preferences is generally based on primary survey data. This study contributes to the literature as it is applied to a relatively large sample of household micro datasets.

Maritime transport is one of the most widely used transport channels used by countries in foreign trade. The development of maritime transport affects the economic growth levels of countries. In addition, the increase in the level of economic growth of countries increases their share in international foreign trade and this situation increases the importance given by countries to maritime transport day by day. In this context, the study aims to determine whether there is any causality relationship between maritime transport and economic growth variables in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Türkiye, and the United Kingdom, which have the highest maritime transport among European countries. The bootstrap panel causality test was employed to examine the causality relationships between the variables over the time frame of 2008:Q1-2020:Q2. According to the findings, there is a causality relationship from economic growth to maritime transportation in all countries except Italy and the Netherlands. There is a causality relationship from maritime transportation to economic growth in Türkiye and the United Kingdom. As a result, the relationship between maritime transport and economic growth varies from country to country. This situation reveals the necessity of developing national policies for maritime transport by considering the economic structures of the countries.

Klotok as a river transportation mode is interesting to study. However, not much research focuses on how the role of klotok as a mode of transportation can attract tourists. Klotok becomes an icon as a river tourism icon because it presents a uniqueness for the audience. This study aims to describe how the role of klotok and its existence for the Banjar community. Interviews were conducted with three community groups, namely: klotok owners, traders, and visitors to the Siring Menara Pandang tourist destination. This is intended to provide a complete description of the function of klotok as a mode of water transportation, especially in river areas. The results of the study describe how klotok as a mode of water transportation is moored on the edge of the Martapura River, precisely Siring Menara Pandang. The choice of location is because Siring Menara Pandang is a public space that is used as well as a tourist destination. Revitalizing the river by prioritizing the river as a selling price to tourists has positioned klotok as a vital mode of transportation. Based on its development, klotok not only acts as a mode of river transportation but also as a choice of entertainment attractions for river tourism

Historically, inland marine transportation has been one of the most efficient and reliable modes of commercial freight transportation. However, hazardous material shipments have become more common on inland waterways, creating concerns about the dissemination of shipment information to land-based emergency responders immediately following an incident. Marine transportation accidents have demonstrated that a spill involving hazardous materials near a major urban area can have devastating consequences. For these reasons a prototypical decision support system for inland marine transportation risk management has been developed. The system is designed to support real-time response as well as planning decisions such as risk resource allocation and evaluation of potential response strategies. It can be applied to barge accidents as well as counterterrorism planning activities. The system is based on the integration of geographic information systems (GIS), database management systems, Global Positioning Systems, and the Internet. In the event of an incident, this system enables en route responders to view incident details via an Internet GIS map service. The map service contains data that describe land use, population, and dispersion results for air and surface water at downstream intakes. To illustrate system capability, a recent accident is re-created to show how the response could have been improved with system access. A case study showing planning applications is also provided.

Land Use and Transportation Policies Addressing Climate Change

Screening of long-range transport potential (LRTP) of organic chemicals in water requires the development of criteria in analogy to the existing LRTP criteria for airborne chemicals. According to the Stockholm Convention, compounds mainly partitioning into air are assumed to be prone to LRTP if they have a half-life in air of more than two days. Using mean flow velocities of European rivers (0.7-1 m/s) and of ocean currents running into the Arctic Ocean (0.28-0.9 m/s), we derived corresponding half-life criteria for freshwater and seawater (10 days and 90 days, respectively). Next, we calculated the characteristic travel distance (CTD) of several thousand chemicals from the Canadian Domestic Substances List (DSL) and all current POPs using the multimedia model ELPOS. This shows that the CTD in water dominates the CTD in air only for chemicals that are characterized by a large half-life in water and a low air-water partition coefficient (about 38% of the nonionic organic substances selected from the DSL). In particular, there are substances that are not classified as persistent compounds in water but exhibit higher CTDs for transport in water than for transport in air. Finally, we evaluated whether the LRTP boundary derived from POP reference chemicals has to be revised if LRTP in water is included and found that this boundary can be applied to all organic chemicals regardless of their transport in air or water.

Economic and financial analysis is a method of knowing the mechanism of formation and modification of the economic phenomena by their decomposition into the component elements and by identifying the factors of influence. The object of decomposition by elements or factors may be a result (structural analysis), or a change in the result from a basis of comparison (causal analysis). In the present paper I propose an analysis of the investments according to the number of passengers and the consumption of energy on national transport modes in Romania within a period of 15 years, respectively between 2000 and 2015. For this purpose the data that will be used was published by the National Institute of Statistics, namely three indicators: investments in transport infrastructure, the weight of each mode in passenger transport and the consumption of energy by modes of transport. Energy consumption by modes of transport is the final energy consumption of transport activity by modes of transport, expressed in tones oil equivalent (toe). The quantities of energy used in international maritime and air transport and pipeline transport are not included. The main types of fuels used are the main fuels covered by petroleum products, electricity and small amounts of gas and biofuels. The weight of each mode in passenger transport is defined as the percentage share of each mode of transport in total domestic passenger transport. The modes of transport considered are: a) cars, b) buses and coaches, and c) trains (metro and trams and light metro are excluded). Domestic passenger transport includes data referring only to national transport, irrespective of the nationality of the transport vehicle. The weight is calculated from the passenger-km indicator (pkm), defined as the transport of a passenger over one kilometer. The investments in the transport infrastructure represent the construction works carried out for the development of the transport infrastructure. In order to carry out the statistical analysis of the investments in the transport infrastructure, the number of passengers and the energy consumption in transport modes in Romania, multiple linear regression models and time series analysis will be used.