Immersive Virtual Reality in Learning Traditional Archery Using an Inverse Kinematics Approach

Finding enjoyable and effective long-term approaches to rehabilitation for improving the upper limb (UL) function of people with multiple sclerosis (MS) is challenging. Virtual reality (VR) with its engagement, interaction, and real time feedback could be a solution, with immersive VR systems having preliminary evidence in stroke to be more effective in improving UL outcomes in comparison to non-immersive VR. However, immersive VR research is limited within the realm of MS rehabilitation. Therefore, the main aim of the PhD was to explore immersive VR as an approach for UL rehabilitation for people with MS (pwMS). This was achieved in four stages: 1) a systematic review of the current evidence for VR in UL rehabilitation in MS; 2) predevelopment focus groups to determine requirements for the development of bespoke immersive VR games; 3) software development of bespoke VR games to potentially improve UL function for pwMS; and 4) a feasibility study of the games and immersive VR for pwMS’ UL rehabilitation. The systematic review initially yielded ten articles with varying study design, VR intervention and UL outcome measures used. There were some statistically significant improvements after VR interventions in outcomes such as in nine-hole peg test (NHPT), hand grip strength and active range of motion. There were however conflicting results regarding if VR was more effective than conventional approaches. Whilst the review demonstrated there were positive results for VR improving UL function, most of the studies had small sample sizes and were inadequately powered, and the level of immersion on effectiveness in MS remains unknown. The predevelopment focus groups recruited ten pwMS and eight specialist clinicians to explore their views on immersive VR as an approach to UL rehabilitation and determine requirements to develop VR games for this purpose. PwMS commonly reported that their UL problems interfered with activities of daily living and resulted in the loss of meaningful hobbies such as writing. Many pwMS neglected UL exercise and found strategies for adapting to their UL impairments. Similarly, clinicians stated UL rehabilitation was neglected within their service and that it was challenging to find interesting treatment strategies. VR was suggested by both participant groups as a potential solution, as it was convenient for pwMS to access and could provide a more engaging and disguised approach to exercise. Although, there were shared concerns about cybersickness and disengagement while using VR approaches. Finally, both groups agreed games should be meaningful and adaptable for users but suggested different VR activities, with clinicians suggesting games directly reflecting activities of daily living and pwMS suggesting more abstract activities. Recommendations were made for the development of VR rehabilitation games which could be personalised and customisable for the varying abilities of pwMS. Using theme-based content analysis and requirement analysis, requirements for the software development of immersive VR games were created and developed using Unity game engine. Three games, “Piano”; “Catch-a-falling-star” and “VR Whack-a-mole” which targeted dexterity and strength for pwMS were developed, with different difficulty levels implemented to adapt to varying ability of pwMS. The final stage of this PhD was a randomised, controlled feasibility study to investigate an intervention of immersive VR involving the three co-produced games for pwMS’ UL rehabilitation. Participants were randomised to either an intervention group consisting of 30 minutes of VR co-produced games, twice/week, for eight weeks, or to a control group of usual care. Participants were recruited from the NHS and third sector organisations. Nineteen pwMS were recruited (intervention n=11, control n=8), with a recruitment rate of 3.2 participants/month. Only minor adverse events were reported (n=9), such as fatigue and UL pain. Adherence was good with 87% (±12%) session completed, and two dropouts were reported in the control group. There were positive trends for improving NHPT and hand grip strength, but there was an observed ceiling effect in the Action Research Arm Test. Participants reported high levels of satisfaction and good usability of the co-produced VR games, as measured by the USE questionnaire. Thematic analysis revealed participants enjoyed the distraction and atmospheres that immersive VR provided, and believed the games were fit for purpose with the majority of participants reporting improvements in their UL function. Participants suggested more variety and progression of exercises for future development. Overall, these studies show that immersive VR has the potential to be beneficial for UL rehabilitation and is feasible and safe for pwMS. Therefore, future work should refine VR games for long-term application and explore the clinical and cost effectiveness of this approach.

The development of Virtual Reality (VR) technology for competency assessment with multiple users is a breakthrough in the assessment of skills. The Multi-User Virtual Environment for Professional Certification Assessment (MUVE PCA) is a VR-based application that provides a VR experience to users. This study aimed to obtain information on the usefulness of the application and whether it can be accepted by users using the Virtual Reality System Usability Questionnaire (VRSUQ) and the System Usability Scale (SUS). Data collection was carried out by piloting the MUVE PCA application installed on the Oculus Head Mounted Device (HMD) to vocational school students, vocational school teachers, students, and lecturers in the field of Information Technology (IT) in computer network environments. The results showed a SUS score of 70.41, slightly above the global SUS standard, indicating that the system is considered acceptable. The average VRSUQ score of 3.52 is slightly below the standards, indicating that the system needs to be improved in some areas, especially in terms of convenience.

Purpose This study investigated undergraduate nursing students’ perceptions of integrating virtual reality (VR) technology into a community nursing course, specifically home and environmental patient safety assessments. Design This study used a mixed-methods approach with an explanatory design. Methods Participants were recruited from a community health course. The students engaged in a VR simulation involving home visits using the vizHome platform. Quantitative and qualitative data were gathered using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the System Usability Scale (SUS). Semi-structured interviews were conducted. Quantitative data were collected through Qualtrics and secure Zoom connections for the interviews. The data were analyzed with SPSS and MAXQDA. Findings The results indicated that participants perceived VR as valuable and easy to use for learning home assessment skills. The System Usability Scale (SUS) score revealed room for improvement. Technical limitations were identified as challenges that must be addressed to enhance the user experience. Conclusion Participants acknowledged VR’s potential to supplement traditional learning methods, providing safe and realistic exposure to diverse home environments. While VR was seen as beneficial, it was not considered a replacement for actual home visits in community nursing education. Clinical evidence This study provided clinical teaching evidence on the usability and student perceptions of VR in community courses.

IntroductionPost-stroke hand motor impairment is a major cause of long-term functional disability and reduced quality of life, with approximately 70% of stroke survivors experiencing persistent limitations in fine motor control. Conventional rehabilitation is constrained by low adherence, subjective assessment, and insufficient individualization, which limits exploitation of the neuroplasticity window for motor relearning. To address these challenges, we propose a bio–AI–VR integrated hand rehabilitation system that fuses biosignal sensing (bio), AI-based analysis, and virtual reality (VR) interaction to realize an efficient, adaptive, and quantifiable closed-loop training process. The integration rationale is grounded in three theoretical pillars: (i) multimodal data fusion theory—combining heterogeneous biosignal and behavioral data through AI to overcome single-modality limitations; (ii) closed-loop adaptive control theory—dynamically balancing challenge and capability via real-time feedback; (iii) neuroplasticity multisensory enhancement theory—coordinating visual, proprioceptive, and motor pathways to strengthen cortical reorganization. This work addresses three testable hypotheses: (RQ1) Can multimodal biosignal fusion achieve real-time assessment with and latency ms? (RQ2) Does bio-AI-VR integration yield FMA-UE improvement points (minimal clinically important difference) with effect size ? (RQ3) Are all three components (bio, AI, VR) necessary, with ablation causing performance degradation?MethodsA lightweight hand exoskeleton ( g, 3 DoF/finger) integrates a 6-axis IMU (100 Hz) and 16-channel sEMG (1 kHz) to synchronously acquire kinematics and muscle activation. Extended Kalman filtering fuses sensor streams before AI processing. Features include range of motion (ROM), smoothness metrics (SPARC, LDLJ), sEMG root-mean-square (RMS), median frequency (MDF), and co-contraction index (CCI). A hybrid model combining random forests (200 trees, depth 8) and support vector regression (RBF kernel, , ) outputs a real-time composite score via multi-task learning with GroupKFold cross-validation, mapped to clinical scales through Sigmoid normalization. FMA-UE proxy labels for window-level training were constructed via linear interpolation (80%), biomechanical anchoring (15%), and expert annotation (5%, inter-rater ). A cloud AI engine communicates bidirectionally with Unity-based VR over MQTT to close the perception-assessment-assistance loop. The assistance-as-needed (AAN) algorithm adjusts exoskeleton torque () and VR difficulty () using as control input with hysteresis, dead zone, and rate limiting to ensure smooth adaptation. Twenty-four stroke survivors (3–12 months post-stroke, FMA-UE 15–50) underwent 4-week training (5 sessions/week, 20 min/session). Outcomes included FMA-UE (primary), ARAT, grip strength, normalized ROM, task success rate, and System Usability Scale (SUS). Statistical analysis employed paired -tests with Hedges’ correction for effect sizes, Bonferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons, and leave-one-subject-out cross-validation (LOSOCV) to assess model generalization.ResultsAll 24 participants completed the study with one missed session (479 of 480 scheduled sessions, 8,946 annotated segments); end-to-end latency median 38 ms (IQR 33–42 ms), decomposed as: sampling ms, preprocessing ms, network ms, AI inference ms, control ms, command return ms. Offline model performance: (GroupKFold), MAE 3.2 points, Spearman with FMA-UE (); LOSOCV: ; test-retest ICC(2,1) 0.84 [0.76, 0.91]. AAN algorithm reduced assist torque (), increased VR difficulty (), improved task success ( pp). Clinical outcomes (paired -test): FMA-UE [6.7, 11.5], ; ARAT [5.2, 10.0], ; grip kg [2.5, 5.7], ; ; SPARC . Subgroup analysis: moderate-to-severe () showed greater FMA-UE gain ( vs in mild-to-moderate, ). Ablation experiments confirmed synergistic necessity: Bio only (, FMA-UE ), VR only (, ), Bio-AI (, , compliance 68%), complete system (, , compliance 88%). SUS ; no serious adverse events.DiscussionResults validate all three hypotheses: (i) multimodal fusion exceeded technical targets (, latency 38 ms ms); (ii) clinical efficacy surpassed MCID with large effect sizes (FMA-UE points, ), exceeding published spontaneous recovery rates (2–4 points); (iii) ablation experiments demonstrated degradation when removing any component, confirming non-additive synergistic effects of bio-AI-VR integration. Compared to recent brain-computer interface systems using EEG-based motor imagery, this approach achieves paradigm shift toward execution-based rehabilitation with direct motor intent capture and real-time physical feedback. The AAN control law elevates from low-level motion control to high-level rehabilitation strategy, spanning multiple temporal scales (window to course-level) and dual channels (physical assistance cognitive challenge). Limitations include single-arm design limiting causal inference, small sample size (), short intervention period (4 weeks), FMA-UE proxy construction via linear interpolation, and controlled clinical setting vs. real-world deployment. Future work requires larger RCTs with active control arms, extended follow-up (3–6 months), dense longitudinal assessments, exploration of deep learning architectures for temporal modeling, and validation in home-based telerehabilitation settings. The bio–AI–VR system demonstrates feasibility of data-driven, multimodal closed-loop rehabilitation, offering a wearable, low-latency, and personalized solution for post-stroke hand recovery that bridges the gap between laboratory innovation and clinical translation.

Extended-Reality Technologies: An Overview of Emerging Applications in Medical Education and Clinical Care.

Within the context of the informal science center, exhibits are the main interface for public learning. Essential to the success of a science center is how well exhibits model effective strategies for learning. Virtual Reality (VR) technology with its flexible, adaptive, multimedia, and immersive-learning capabilities is emerging for use by science centers in exhibits; however, research on learning in virtual environments at exhibits is scarce. To support the future development of VR science exhibits it is critical to investigate VR's pedagogical value and effects on science learning. Research investigated the Smoke & Mirrors VR exhibit at the Reuben H. Fleet Science Center in San Diego, California. Inquiry focused on the interplay between elements of the exhibit's design, assessing the separate and interactive effects of visual imagery, moving images, sound, narration, and interactive tools to differentiate the causal characteristics and influences that enhanced and detracted from learning. Case study methodology was employed utilizing visitor observations and interviews with 14 participants. Findings indicated that realistic visual elements with text were the primary sources of content learning; however, positive results were limited to only a few participants. High cognitive load due to interactive tools; instructional design; and movement of visual images were found to be significant detracting characteristics of participant learning. Other characteristics and influences of VR were also found that directly effected learning. Research results will inform the forthcoming design of a new VR exhibit at the Reuben H. Fleet Science Center and to the design and development of future VR exhibits at informal science centers. A prior brief mixed-methods evaluation of Smoke & Mirrors was conducted in 2003, contributing background to the study and its future implications and strategies.

<p>The development of Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) technologies has significantly transformed the tourism industry, including travel agencies in Indonesia. This study aims to analyze the adoption level and impact of VR and AR technology implementation in travel agencies in Indonesia. Using the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) theoretical framework<em>,</em> this research combines a literature review, case studies, and interviews as the research methodology. The case studies involve ten of the largest travel agencies in Indonesia that have implemented VR and AR technologies in their marketing strategies. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with representatives from these travel agencies to gain an in-depth understanding of the experiences, challenges, and benefits of implementing VR and AR technologies. The researcher carried out data triangulation by comparing findings from the literature review, case studies, and interviews to ensure the validity of the research findings. The results indicate that the adoption of VR and AR technologies by travel agencies in Indonesia is still in its early stages. However, travel agencies implementing VR and AR technologies report significant positive impacts, such as increased tourist interest, enhanced product differentiation, and improved customer engagement. The case studies demonstrate that implementing VR and AR technologies helps travel agencies promote tourist destinations more innovatively and attractively. Nevertheless, several challenges are also encountered, such as the high cost of developing VR and AR content, regular content updates, and the limited human resources skills needed to operate these technologies. This research contributes to understanding the adoption and impact of VR and AR technology implementation in travel agencies in Indonesia. The findings of this study can assist travel agencies in evaluating the potential adoption of VR and AR technologies and developing effective implementation strategies.</p><p><strong>Keywords:</strong> <em>Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, travel agencies, adoption level, implementation impact.</em></p>

Visual communication experiences have been revolutionized by virtual reality (VR) technology, offering users immersive and captivating interactions with digital content. Through VR headsets and immersive environments, users can engage with visual content in unprecedented ways, feeling as though they are physically present within the digital space. Whether exploring virtual art galleries, immersive storytelling experiences, or interactive visualizations, VR technology provides users with a sense of presence and agency, enhancing their connection to the content. Furthermore, VR enables creators to design highly engaging and interactive visual experiences that transcend traditional media formats, allowing for innovative storytelling techniques and immersive narratives. This paper presents the design of a novel visual communication experience leveraging virtual reality (VR) technology enhanced by Multi-Spectral Multi-Point Co-Ordination (MSMPC). The proposed design aims to create immersive and engaging visual experiences that transcend traditional media formats. Through simulated experiments and empirical validations, the effectiveness of the MSMPC-enhanced VR-based visual communication experience is evaluated. Results demonstrate significant improvements in user engagement, immersion, and satisfaction compared to conventional approaches. The users interacting with the MSMPC-enhanced VR experience reported a 40% increase in immersion levels and a 25% improvement in overall satisfaction ratings. Additionally, the design enabled creators to optimize visual storytelling techniques based on real-time user feedback and performance data, leading to more impactful and effective communication. These findings highlight the potential of MSMPC in enhancing visual communication experiences based on VR technology, paving the way for innovative and immersive storytelling in various domains.

The evolution of Virtual Reality (VR) technology has contributed in all fields, including psychology. This evolution involves improvements in hardware and software allowing more immersive experiences. In a VR environment users can perceive the sensation of presence and feel immersed. These sensations are possible using VR devices as HMDs. Nowadays, the development of the HMDs has focused on improving their technical features to offer full immersion. In psychology, VR environments are research tools because they allow the use of new paradigms that are not possible to employ in a real environment. There are some applications for assessing spatial memory that use basic methods of HCI. However, VR systems that incorporate stereoscopy and physical movement have not yet been exploited in psychology. In this thesis, a novel VR system combining immersive, interactive and motion features was developed. This system was used for the assessment of the spatial memory and the evaluation of depth perception. For this system, a virtual maze task was designed and implemented. In this system, two different types of interaction were integrated: a locomotion-based interaction pedaling a fixed bicycle (condition1), and a stationary interaction using a gamepad (condition2). This system integrated two types of display systems: 1) The Oculus Rift; 2) A large stereo screen. Two studies were designed to determine the efficacy of the VR system using physical movement and immersion. The first study (N=89) assessed the spatial short term memory using the Oculus Rift and the two types of interaction The results showed that there were statistically significant differences between both conditions. The participants who performed the condition2 got better performance than participants who performed the condition1. However, there were no statistically significant differences in satisfaction and interaction scores between both conditions. The performance on the task correlated with the performance on other classical neuropsychological tests, revealing a verisimilitude between them. The second study (N=59) involved participants who had and who had not stereopsis. This study assessed the depth perception by comparing the two display systems. The participants performed the task using the condition2. The results showed that the different features of the display system did not influence the performance on the task between the participants with and without stereopsis. Statistically significant differences were found in favor of the HMD between the two conditions and between the two groups of participants regard to depth perception. The participants who did not have stereopsis and could not perceive the depth when they used other display systems (e.g. CAVE); however, they had the illusion of depth perception when they used the Oculus Rift. The study suggests that for the people who did not have stereopsis, the head tracking largely influences the 3D experience. The statistical results of both studies have proven that the VR system developed for this research is an appropriate tool to assess the spatial short-term memory and the depth perception. Therefore, the VR systems that combine full immersion, interaction and movement can be a helpful tool for the assessment of human cognitive processes as the memory. General conclusions from these studies are: 1) The VR technology and immersion provided by current HMDs are appropriate tools for psychological applications, in particular, the assessment of spatial short-term memory; 2) A VR system like the one presented in this thesis could be used as a tool to assess or train adults in skills related to spatial short-term memory; 3) The two types of interaction (condition1 and condition2) used for navigation within the virtual maze could be helpful to use with different collectives; 4) The Oculus Rift allows that the users without stereopsis can perceive the depth perception of 3D objects and have rich 3D experiences.

Public space scenes are being transformed by virtual reality (VR) technology, offering immersive and interactive experiences that redefine how people engage with their surroundings. Through VR simulations, users can explore and interact with virtual public spaces in ways that were previously impossible. From virtual parks and plazas to digital replicas of iconic landmarks, VR technology allows users to experience the ambiance and atmosphere of public spaces from the comfort of their own homes. Moreover, VR enables designers and planners to experiment with different layouts, amenities, and features, facilitating participatory design processes and community engagement. This paper presents a visual design and evaluation framework for public space scenes using virtual reality (VR) technology, enhanced by Virtual Parallel Edge Hashing Computing (VPE-HC). The framework aims to optimize the design and user experience of public spaces by leveraging VR technology to create immersive and interactive simulations. Through simulated experiments and empirical validations, the effectiveness of the VPE-HC-enhanced VR-based design and evaluation process is evaluated. Results demonstrate significant improvements in user satisfaction, engagement, and usability compared to traditional design methods. For instance, users interacting with public space scenes designed using VPE-HC reported a 40% increase in perceived safety and a 25% improvement in overall satisfaction ratings. Additionally, the framework enabled designers to optimize spatial layouts and amenities based on real-time user feedback and performance data, leading to more effective and user-centric design solutions. These findings underscore the potential of VPE-HC in enhancing the visual design and evaluation of public space scenes based on VR technology, facilitating more inclusive and user-friendly urban environments.

Purpose Immersive Virtual Reality (VR) systems allow for highly repetitive tasks to be performed within a virtual environment that increases practice in home environments. VR can increase access to rehabilitation by reducing access barriers. However, rehabilitation outcomes between immersive VR systems and conventional physical rehabilitation are not well understood. The purpose of this case study was to assess the use of a custom clinically based VR simulation for testing gross hand dexterity with an individual with chronic stroke. Materials and methods The participant performed the box and blocks test (BBT) in an immersive VR environment and a physical environment. Three trials of the BBT were performed with their less-affected and affected hands each in both environments while measuring cortical activity using fNIRS. Rests were given between trials and environment conditions. Results Our results show that there was no statistical difference in the number of blocks moved between the physical and VR BBT for both the affected and less-affected hands. Furthermore, our results also indicate no statistically significant difference between the physical BBT and VR BBT conditions on contralateral motor cortex activation, suggesting that cortical involvement is comparable between physical and VR conditions. Conclusions These results suggest that an immersive VR system may be able to elicit functional and motor cortex activations that are comparable to the conventional physical BBT. Importantly, these findings highlights the potential benefits of VR therapy as a remote therapy intervention and/or to increase the effectiveness and practicality of current in-person rehabilitation programs. Implications for rehabilitation These findings highlight the potential benefits of immersive virtual reality as a remote therapy intervention. Immersive virtual reality use has potential benefits to increase the effectiveness and practicality of current in-person rehabilitation programs.

With the development of virtual reality (VR) hardware in recent years, a number of industries have led a renewed interest in adopting VR in their fields. Virtual reality therapy (VRT) is one of the domains expecting the effective use of VR technologies because of their presence and vividness. In terms of art therapy, VR has the potential to facilitate creative artwork, not only for individuals but also for groups. However, in art therapy, we have limited knowledge of how to support user experiences, particularly in multi-user VR environments. This study aims to examine user-centred design requirements for successful multi-user VRAT system development. The research collected user-centred data from the perspectives of participants and therapists. The objective of the proposed system is to improve the social skills of teenagers through group VRAT. For data collection, therapists and teenagers were involved in a three-week VRAT session as a group by adopting a variety of research methods: video recording, subjective questionnaire based on five-point Likert scales, System Usability Scale (SUS) and in-depth interviews. As a result, it was found that a multi-user VRAT system can encourage individual creativity and provide new experiences through social interactions. On the other hand, the study points out that solely adding multi-user features to an existing VR drawing/painting application cannot achieve therapeutic goals.

The rapid development of virtual and augmented reality technologies is currently taking place in almost all spheres of activity. Elements of virtual and augmented reality are used in such areas as education, medicine, transport, gaming, tourism and others. The active spread of these technologies causes the emergence of special competencies in the IT labor market and, as a result, the formation of new professions.Many Russian universities are training students in IT training areas. Specialization in the development of computer games and virtual reality applications has begun recently. The provision of practical classes is accompanied by specific tasks, which gives students the opportunity to improve the use of software and technical devices.The relevance of the research is determined by the current demand for the use of the latest technologies by IT developers in the field of creating computer games. Today, technologies that provide a player’s immersion in virtual reality are becoming more and more popular. One of these technologies is a suit with wearable sensors that track a person’s position in space in real time. However, there are quite a few real described projects in the literature and on the Internet. This study examines the process of developing a task for creating a game application using virtual reality technology: a suit with wearable sensors for teaching students.Materials and methods of research. Timely identification of the needs of the IT market in personnel training allows educational organizations to form new training programs of different levels of training. This approach makes it possible to target the educational and methodological materials being developed to use the latest achievements in the development of the field under study.Using a systematic approach, the study characterizes virtual reality suits and sensors for monitoring the position in the user’s space. Thus, the goal of the task was to ensure the immersiveness and convenience of interaction between the player and the game environment.Based on materials on software, position sensors in space, the approach of pedagogical design was applied and the procedure was formed for a practical task, reflecting the relevant competencies.Results. The study was conducted on the basis in the framework of laboratory and practical work of students, as well as at a real enterprise. Training in the new profile of the direction of training “Applied informatics” is fully equipped with all the latest technologies in this field. As a result of the work, the content of the practical task was developed.Real development of virtual and augmented reality applications is conducted jointly with students. Almost all projects used a suit with body sensors.Conclusion. Our study examines in detail the process of developing an application using a suit with wearable sensors for further training of students. Based on the results, work can be carried out on real projects for any field. Based on the research materials, it is planned to issue a textbook for students with the profile of developing computer games and virtual / augmented reality applications.

The aim of this study was to validate a novel medical virtual reality (VR) platform used for medical image segmentation and contouring in radiation oncology and 3D anatomical modeling and simulation for planning medical interventions, including surgery. The first step of the validation was to verify quantitatively and qualitatively that the VR platform can produce substantially equivalent 3D anatomical models, image contours, and measurements to those generated with existing commercial platforms. To achieve this, a total of eight image sets and 18 structures were segmented using both VR and reference commercial platforms. The image sets were chosen to cover a broad range of scanner manufacturers, modalities, and voxel dimensions. The second step consisted of evaluating whether the VR platform could provide efficiency improvements for target delineation in radiation oncology planning. To assess this, the image sets for five pediatric patients with resected standard-risk medulloblastoma were used to contour target volumes in support of treatment planning of craniospinal irradiation, requiring complete inclusion of the entire cerebral-spinal volume. Structures generated in the VR and the commercial platforms were found to have a high degree of similarity, with dicesimilarity coefficient ranging from 0.963 to 0.985 for high-resolution images and 0.920 to 0.990 for lower resolution images. Volume, cross-sectional area, and length measurements were also found to be in agreement with reference values derived from a commercial system, with length measurements having a maximum difference of 0.22mm, angle measurements having a maximum difference of 0.04°, and cross-sectional area measurements having a maximum difference of 0.16 mm2. The VR platform was also found to yield significant efficiency improvements, reducing the time required to delineate complex cranial and spinal target volumes by an average of 50% or 29min.

Introduction/Main Objectives: This study delves into how technology acceptance (i.e., perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness) and immersive engagement determinants (i.e., perceived enjoyment, interactivity, and telepresence) influence the satisfaction and purchasing intentions of today's youth, specifically focusing on the moderating role of trust within the context of virtual reality (VR) platforms. Background Problems: The current literature has a limited understanding of users' adoption patterns of VR apps, the impact of VR on consumer behaviour, and the lack of knowledge among young consumers regarding the VR platform. Novelty: Previous studies did not consider trust as a moderator in the relationship between satisfaction and behavioural intention when using VR platforms. Moreover, the current research has extended multiple variables to explain user satisfaction and intention based on TAM. Research Methods: The research used a quantitative methodology based on survey data collected from young consumers in Sarawak, one of the Borneo region's states, who use VR platforms. A two-stage Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) analysis was conducted using WarpPLS 8.0 software. Finding/Results: The finding indicated that satisfaction was positively correlated with perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and telepresence. Besides, satisfaction was positively related to the intention to purchase. Conclusion: This study can guide practitioners in decision-making and serve as a reference for scholars conducting related research in the Borneo region.