Inequality in India: Through the Lens of Differences in Water Quality

The Indian society is one of the most unequal societies of the world and divided into different social hierarchies of caste, class, religion, etc. Caste is a determinant of power, economic inequality, poverty and discrimination in contemporary India. When it comes to women, they face the dual burden of discrimination, first gender based and, second, caste based. The practice of discrimination persists between Dalit/tribal and upper-class women, but still, Dalit women are trying to come out of this unequal treatment. Hence, this study investigates the magnitude of discrimination among women workers in terms of the social hierarchy and relative factors responsible for workforce discrimination. Furthermore, this study examines the extent of wage differential between Dalit/tribal and upper-class women workers. The study has used the data of the 50th Employment and Unemployment Survey to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) from 1993–1994 to 2017–2018 by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). In the first part of the analysis, this study explains how and why the women workforce is decreasing, particularly as far as Dalit/tribal women are concerned. Subsequently, the relative contributions of socio-economic conditions in the women workforce have been assessed using logistic regression. However, the second part of the study examines the wage differential between general and Dalit/tribal women and the extent of wage discrimination using the Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition method. The study reveals that the women workforce has been consistently declining and the vulnerability is intense among Dalit/tribal women. Furthermore, it has been observed that the social hierarchy (caste) is a decisive factor for the remuneration (wage) in the labour market and over the period of study, the wage discrimination between Dalit and upper-caste women has significantly increased.

Introduction: Diarrhea cases in the Seribu Islands were recorded in 190 cases in 2021 and in 461 cases in 2022. The factors influencing the incidence of diarrhea are knowledge, attitudes and practices, clean water sources, and clean water quality. The aim of the study was to analyze factors related to the incidence of diarrhea in the Seribu Islands District. Methods: This study was conducted in the Seribu Islands District from February to August 2024. This study was an observational analysis with a case-control approach design. The respondent criteria include having a history of diarrhea in the South Seribu Islands District, as showed by a doctor's diagnosis and positive laboratory results for diarrhea from January to December 2022, and having resided there for more than six months. The case group was consisted of 37 samples and the control group consisted of 37 samples. The independent variables in this study were the biological, physical, and chemical quality of clean water, clean water sources, knowledge, attitudes, and practice. The collected data were analyzed using the chi-square and logistic regression test using SPSS software. Results: The variables of physical quality of clean water, clean water sources, knowledge and practices of respondents did not have a significant effect on the incidence of diarrhea (p>0.05). Meanwhile, the biological and chemical quality of clean water, and the respondents' attitudes had a significant effect on the incidence of diarrhea (p <0.05). Based on the results of the multivariate analysis, the biological quality of clean water had a significant effect (p = 0.001) with an odds ratio of 9.18. The most influential factor on the incidence of diarrhea is the biological quality of the clean water. Conclusion: The variables of knowledge, attitudes, practices, clean water sources, and physical and chemical quality of water showed no effect on the incidence of diarrhea (p value > 0.05). The biological quality of the water variable had an effect on the incidence of diarrhea (p value = 0.001), with an odds ratio of 9.18. Since E. coli-contaminated food and water contribute significantly to the spread of diarrheal illnesses in the community, it is crucial to monitor the quality of food and drinking water and to improve sanitation in order to reduce the prevalence of diarrhea, particularly in the Seribu Islands.

Household water treatment, including boiling, chlorination and filtration, has been shown effective in improving drinking water quality and preventing diarrheal disease among vulnerable populations. We used a case-control study design to evaluate the extent to which the commercial promotion of household water filters through microfinance institutions to women's self-help group (SHG) members improved access to safe drinking water. This pilot program achieved a 9.8% adoption rate among women targeted for adoption. Data from surveys and assays of fecal contamination (thermotolerant coliforms, TTC) of drinking water samples (source and household) were analyzed from 281 filter adopters and 247 non-adopters exposed to the program; 251 non-SHG members were also surveyed. While adopters were more likely than non-adopters to have children under 5 years, they were also more educated, less poor, more likely to have access to improved water supplies, and more likely to have previously used a water filter. Adopters had lower levels of fecal contamination of household drinking water than non-adopters, even among those non-adopters who treated their water by boiling or using traditional ceramic filters. Nevertheless, one-third of water samples from adopter households exceeded 100 TTC/100ml (high risk), and more than a quarter of the filters had no stored treated water available when visited by an investigator, raising concerns about correct, consistent use. In addition, the poorest adopters were less likely to see improvements in their water quality. Comparisons of SHG and non-SHG members suggest similar demographic characteristics, indicating SHG members are an appropriate target group for this promotion campaign. However, in order to increase the potential for health gains, future programs will need to increase uptake, particularly among the poorest households who are most susceptible to disease morbidity and mortality, and focus on strategies to improve the correct, consistent and sustained use of these water treatment products.

Daily changes in household water access and quality in urban slums undermine global safe water monitoring programmes.

Provision of clean water is still a problem currently in Indonesia , 80% of the population still consume water that does not meet health standards. Is the ergonomic knock down water filters to provide clean water become consumer interest?. The study was designed using a comparative descriptive study, The number of respondents is 30 people who use water filters. Data is taken by observation and questionnaire. Data is analyzed using descriptive percentages. The result of the research shows that the "C" (Portable Water Filter Purifier) Water Filter form is the most consumers interest (40%), "B" water filter form (Indoor Drinking Water Filter Stainless Steel Water Purifier) is (36.6%), and the least interested is form of "A" (Mi Water Purifier) water filter (23.3%).73.3% of respondents choose stainless steel material. Conclusion: water filter users have the highest interest in the type of portable knock down filter made of stainless steel material, easily installed and used ergonomically, and the material is not easily corrosion.

This article critically examines algorithmic bias and discrimination in the Indian context, focusing on the intersection of rapid artificial intelligence (AI) adoption and existing societal inequities rooted in historical injustices. It explores how AI systems, developed without deliberation and representation, risk perpetuating biases related to caste, religion, gender and socio-economic status, posing significant dangers to marginalised communities. Using a multi-theoretical framework, including algorithmic bias theory, sociotechnical systems theory and feminist theories of structural injustice, the study highlights AI’s entanglement with societal norms and power dynamics. The qualitative research involved in-depth interviews with five experts from academia, law, science and policy to examine AI’s sociotechnical landscape in India. Key findings include underrepresentation of marginalised communities in AI datasets, lack of ethical AI guidelines, risks of surveillance misuse and limited awareness of AI ethics among developers and policymakers. A novel insight is the danger of addressing AI bias reactively, as this could entrench further harm. The study advocates for public policy solutions to promote data equity, foster responsibility among AI developers, establish independent oversight and encourage public discourse on AI ethics. Prioritising equity and ethical considerations is crucial to harnessing AI’s potential while protecting the rights and dignity of all citizens.

This paper describes how access to a sufficient supply of safe drinking water is essential in maintaining public health. The quality of water and associated health risks vary throughout the world with some regions showing contamination of drinking water by pathogens or high levels of chemical compounds, where elsewhere these are very low and present no problem for human health. Considerable variations also occur on a more local level within countries. This study analyzes the status of public water supply and drinking water quality in towns and rural settlements of Estonia and its possible impact on public health. The basis of the study was the Health Protection Inspectorate database on the water suppliers and water quality. A special study was carried out to determine fluoride content (the main toxic chemical of concern in Estonia) in drinking water. All towns and rural settlements with water supply systems serving at least 100 inhabitants were visited and water samples were taken. The access to public drinking water supplies by counties was analyzed. The exposure of the population to selected chemicals of concern was determined. Estonia is characterized by a large proportion of small water supplies. It makes the safeguarding of water quality and control complicated. The percentage of the population exposed to toxic compounds (fluoride, boron) was small and this occurred mainly in the case of small water supplies. At the same time a considerable amount of the population is influenced by undesirable chemicals (iron, manganese, etc.). These substances are non-toxic but disturb the conditions of water usage and quality of life. The priority in planning and improving public water supply should be given to activities minimizing the health risks from toxic components in drinking water.

<p>In the UK, peatlands are a significant provider of many ecosystem services including drinking water provision and carbon sequestration. However, a history of intense management and other environmental factors such as air pollution has led to large scale peatland degradation. In fact, a large proportion of UK peatland habitat, particularly upland blanket bog, is no longer being classified as ‘active’. Such degraded peatlands are characterised by lower water tables, causing increased peat decomposition and thus loss of carbon. Carbon is mainly lost via respiration (CO2 and CH4) and as dissolved organic carbon (DOC), the latter leading to a potential associated decline in water quality (affecting colour and taste); however, separating climatic from vegetation impacts and attributing negative impacts to management remains a challenge.</p><p>A particular issue in the UK is water quality from uplands containing blanket bog, as they provide most of the UK’s drinking water. Over recent decades drinking water quality has deteriorated as seen in increasing DOC concentrations. Whilst previous work has explored links between rising DOC and management practices, particularly grousemoor management involving rotational burning of vegetation to encourage red grouse populations on shooting estates, there continues to be a lack of understanding linkages in relation to alternative management/restoration, vegetation composition and, in particular, underpinning peat chemical processes. Understanding such linkages is becoming ever more important as many degraded peatlands are currently being restored by revegetation and rewetting as well as exploring alternative management such as mowing of vegetation.</p><p>Unravelling the underpinning peat chemistry and plant-soil processes regulating carbon cycling, and producing and/or altering DOC and its various constituent components, is key to understand impacts upon water treatment requirements. Of particular concern is that chemical (coagulant) water treatment has potential health implications via disinfectant by-product formation following chlorination of DOC rich water supply. Thus, ill-informed land management and/or restoration alongside climatic change may incur additional water treatment pressures and costs, putting increased pressure on an already strained system. Therefore, it is important to understand the role of catchment-scale peat plant-soil chemical processes and adapt best-practice land management options for supporting drinking water quality at the peatland source.</p><p>Here, insights into peat physical and chemical properties are presented, towards enabling management decisions based on ‘treatment at source’ rather than the conventional ‘end of pipe’ drinking water treatment. Field samples and monitoring of peat mesocosm cores taken from across a spectrum of ‘intact’ to degraded and restored UK blanket bogs (including conventionally burnt and alternatively mown grousemoors) are routinely monitored for gaseous carbon fluxes, DOC and water quality parameters relating DOC properties (e.g. UV-spectra) to vegetation, habitat condition and management. Mesocosms also included sampling from individual vegetated cores, each with two attached plant-free cores, either with or without roots. We compare findings from controlled mesocosms to samples from field sites, assess potential methodological aspects affecting DOC collection and characterisation, unravel potential links to specific vegetation types and management/habitat condition, and explore the characterisation of DOC compounds linked to colour, high coagulant demand and the formation of disinfectant by-products.</p>

Biological effect-based monitoring is essential for predicting or alerting to a possible deterioration in drinking water quality. In the present study, a reporter gene assay based on oxidative stress-mediated Pgst-4::GFP induction in the Caenorhabditis elegans strain VP596 (VP596 assay) was assessed for its applicability in evaluating drinking water safety and quality. This assay was used to measure the oxidative stress response in VP596 worms exposed to six ubiquitous components (As3+, Al3+, F-, NO3--N, CHCl3, and residual chlorine) in drinking water, eight mixtures of these six components designed through orthogonal design, ninety-six unconcentrated water samples from source to tap water in two supply systems, and organic extracts (OEs) of twenty-five selected water samples. Pgst-4::GFP fluorescence was not induced by Al3+, F-, NO3--N, and CHCl3, and was significantly enhanced by As3+ and residual chlorine only at concentrations higher than their respective drinking water guideline levels. Pgst-4::GFP induction was not detected in any of the six-component mixtures. Induction of Pgst-4::GFP was observed in 9.4% (3/32) of the source water samples but not in the drinking water samples. However, a notable induction effect was revealed in the three OEs of drinking water, with a relative enrichment factor of 200. These results suggest that the VP596 assay has limited utility for screening drinking water safety by testing unconcentrated water samples; however, it offers a supplemental in vivo tool for prioritizing water samples for an enhanced quality assessment, monitoring pollutant removal performance by drinking water treatment plants, and evaluating water quality in water supplies.

The provision of safe drinking requires high quality water sources, treatment of the water, and its distribution. However, the first distribution systems in cities were designed for fire protection. In time they were extended to commercial and then to residential properties but their design then was the responsibility of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. Today, it is the Insurance Services Office, Inc., whose regulations are the text of AWWA's Manual M31, Distribution System Requirements for Fire Protection. Not one word relates to drinking water quality. Its only purpose is to assure adequate pressure and flows for fire protection. Apparently, drinking water quality is of no importance. Recent AWWA Water Quality Technology Conferences have had hundreds of papers on the degradation of water quality in distribution systems. Last year, AWWA compiled a 1,083-page volume, Water Quality in the Distribution System. The problems arise from defects in distribution systems designed for fire protection. Pipes and storage tanks need to be larger than necessary for drinking water systems, resulting in residence times that range to months. Long residence makes many water quality problems. Difficulties in maintaining disinfection, demanding higher doses of disinfectant, in turn result in excessive levels of disinfection by-products (DBPs), which are the most serious water quality health problems extant today. Another problem created by long residence times is the growth of biofilm on the insides of the pipes. The biofilms react with the disinfectants ,reducing their and creating growths that harbor the pathogens This leads to tuberculation that in time reduces the hydraulic capacity of the pipes. Still another problem created by the minimum 6- and 8-inch diameter pipes, which make up the larger lengths of pipes in the systems, are heavy pipes laid on soil with some 350 joints per mile, many of which, in time, leak. Loss of water may not be serious, but the frequent negative transient pressures that occur in the pipes have been found to suck contaminated groundwater into the pipe. One solution is a distribution system that carries only drinking water. It would not have hydrants and in most of the city, the pipes would be less than one inch, and laid with few joints. It would be a drinking water distribution system with none of the problems we face today. What about fire protection? In the last half-century, dual water systems have spread over the country. They were created to conserve drinking water by using reclaimed wastewater for the many nonpotable demands, including water for fire protection. More than 2,000 cities and towns have dual systems and more are being created every day. Most conventional water treatment plants are far short of being adequate despite statements that they meet EPA regulations. If only drinking water needs to be treated, the far lower cost would permit the adoption of membrane treatment, assuring drinking water of high quality Without question, new communities adopting such dual systems would deliver much higher quality water at lower cost. For existing communities, distribution systems would need to be introduced gradually when retrofitting for growth and as funds are available.

Objective To find out the hygienic status of rural drinking water in Jianhe County of Guizhou Province.Methods Forty-eight source water and tap water samples from small centralized water supply stations in 12 townships of Jianhe County in dry season and wet period were tested from 2009-2011.The water samples were examined in accordance with the relevant provision of Standard Examination Methods for (B/T5750-2006).The contents included:①sensory indicators:standard color,turbidity,smell and taste and visible objects; ②general chemical indicators:pH,iron,manganese,chloride,sulfate,total dissolved solids,total hardness,oxygen consumption and ammonia; ③toxicological indicators:fluoride,arsenic and nitrate; ④microbial indicators:total number of colonies,with a total population of Escherichia coli and heat-resistant Escherichia coli Outcome evaluation was carried out in accordance with the Drinking Water Health Standards (B/T 5.749-2006).Results A total of 192 rural water samples were collected in 2009-2011,and 18 samples were qualified,accounting for 9.38％.The differences of water passing rate between groups of years were statistically significant (x2 =14.74,P＜ 0.01).Rural drinking water quality in dry season (18.75％,18/96) was better than that in wet season (0.00％,0/96; x2 =19.76,P ＜ 0.01).Passing rate of source water quality (16.67％,16/96) was higher than that of tap water(2.08％,2/96; x2 =11.95,P ＜ 0.01).Sensory indicators and toxicological indicators of 192 water samples were qualified.General chemical indicators:in addition to four water samples with pH exceeded the standard(two copies in 2009 and two copies in 2010),other test indicators were qualified.Microbiological indicators:passing rates of the total number of colonies,Escherichia coli group and heat-resistant Escherichia coli group were 77.08％ (148/192),9.90％ (19/192) and 20.31％ (39/192),respectively.Passing rate of microbes was 18.75％ (18/96) in dry season and 0.00％ (0/96) in wet period,and microbes passing rate was significantly higher in dry season than that of the wet period(x2 =19.76,P ＜ 0.01).Passing rate of microbes was 16.67％(16/96) in source water and 2.08％(2/96) in tap water,and passing rate of the source water was significantly higher than that of the tap water(x2 =11.95,P ＜ 0.01).Conclusions The hygienic status of rural drinking water in rural areas of Jianhe County of Guizhou Province is poor.Microbial pollution is the main reason. Key words: Rural area; Drinking; Water quality detection; Qualified rate

Nations which are part of the United Nations are required to institute appropriate measures to fulfil the vision of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, for this to be possible, all stakeholders including the general public need to be fully aware of the SDGs. This research examined the level of public awareness about the SDGs among Ghanaians based on the views of 431 respondents. Means, standard deviation, Mann–Whitney U test, Kruskal Wallis and Pearson Product-Moment Correlations were used for data analysis. The study found that awareness level on SDG 1 (ending poverty), SDG 2 (zero hunger, food security, nutrition and sustainable agriculture), SDG 3 (health and well-being), SDG 5 (gender equality), and SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) was high among Ghanaians. However, awareness level on SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure), SDG 14 (conservation of life below water), and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) was very low among Ghanaians. No significant difference manifested in the level of awareness among male and female Ghanaians. There were statistically significant differences in educational levels of respondents and their overall level of awareness of the SDGs. Also, there was a low, negative correlation between overall level of awareness and the effectiveness of the communication strategies used in creating awareness about the SDGs. Government should re-examine its communication strategies on the SDGs and put in place a more effective communication policy framework which involves grassroots populations and local communities.

Quality drinking water is of prime importance for human need. Potable water comes from surface water and groundwater sources and it is acceptable for human consumption. The method of storing water plays a crucial role in maintaining its purity and safety for human consumption. Due to lack of continuous water supply, storage tanks are necessary to store water and storage tank material may affect the quality of potable water. The objective of this study is to investigate the variation in water quality during storage for some particular time period in different types of storage containers. 40 days (six weeks) is considered to determine potable water quality variation during storage in different container materials and materials used for containers are plastic tanks, clay pot and Reinforced Cement Concrete. To find the water quality parameters, samples are to be collected at five days interval. During the period of storage, physical, chemical and biological water quality parameters are to be determined. Parameters obtained from above tests are analyzed to understand the effect of age and container material on the quality of potable water. This analysis is useful to choose the material of storage container to store water for a particular period of time.

Background: Water is basic human right, most precious resource for economy and health. Drinking water and sanitation is a fundamental health service. The health of a person largely depends on its quality and quantity of safe water. Water must be safe and wholesome. But unfortunately the problem of water pollution has now become a burning question. Objective: To explore the knowledge and practice of drinking safe water among the community people. Method: This was a descriptive type of cross-sectional study conducted at Horintana, Khulna, during the period from January 2018 to April 2018 to assess the Knowledge and practice of drinking safe water among the villagers. The respondents were adult population of the community. Result: Most of the respondents were in 30-44 years age group, (53.64%) and 15-29 years age group (31.36%). Majority of the respondents were female (84.55%). Majority of villagers drank tube well water (93.64%). 81.36% of the respondents knew about safe sources of drinking water. 14 (6.36%) respondents, who used water other than tube well water applied purification methods. A large portion of respondents (14.09%) did not know about the water borne diseases. Among the water borne diseases they had suffered,most prevalent diseases were diarrheal diseases (57.63%) and parasitic infestations (16.66%). In most cases, treatment providers were MBBS doctors (64.23%). Conclusion: In conclusion, the study revealed that the knowledge and practice of safe drinking water among the rural people is now satisfactory. But the matter of great sorrow is that, the socio-economic condition and educational status of people is hampering towards the good health.
 Anwer Khan Modern Medical College Journal Vol. 10, No. 2: July 2019, P 105-109

Chemical and microbial health risk assessment of drinking water treatment plants in Kut City, Iraq