Informal Learning and Cognitive Processes: A Psychological Analysis between Theories and Applications

Background and objectives: All health and social care professionals learn on the job through both formal and informal learning processes, which contributes to continuous professional development (CPD). This study explored workplace learning in General Practices, specifically looking at the role of informal learning and the workplace practices that appear to support or restrict that learning, as well as how technology was integrated into these learning processes.Methods: Three focus groups with general practitioners, practice nurses, managerial and administrative staff were conducted followed by twelve individual semi-structured interviews with participants drawn from the focus groups. Three observations of multi-disciplinary team meetings were used to establish potential team-based learning activities.Results: Triggers for informal workplace learning included patients presenting challenging or unusual conditions; exposure to others’ professional practice; and policy driven changes through revised guidance and protocols. By exploring how these triggers were acted upon, we identified mechanisms through which the primary care workplace supports or restricts informal learning through working practices, existing technologies and inter-professional structures.Conclusion: Informal workplace learning was identified as arising from both opportunistic encounters and more planned activities, which are both supported and restricted through a variety of mechanisms. Maximising informal learning opportunities and removing barriers to doing so should be a priority for primary care practitioners, managers and educators.

The negative effects of digital technology and the continuously growing learning demands related to work can pose burdens on the workforce. In this article, we explore how these challenges are related to informal workplace learning. We build on the concept of sustainable learning, aiming to outline what sustainability means in the context of using digital technology in informal workplace learning. We used digital ethnography to study the use of digital technology in authentic knowledge work settings. Our ethnographic accounts describe how digital technology was used for informal workplace learning in the case organisation and give insights into its role in learning. The novelty of this study is that in addition to identifying the challenges related to using digital technology in informal learning, we focused on investigating strategies for managing and reducing these negative aspects. Digital technology introduced strains and increased learning demands, but the workplace developed practices to manage them. We propose that the sustainable use of digital technology in informal workplace learning balances the burdens and benefits of digital technology, ensuring quality of learning and staff wellbeing. This requires developed digital work practices and skills from employees, as well as managers.

The base of the iceberg: Informal learning and its impact on formal and non-formal learning is a thick and deep theoretical discussion on education by Alan Rogers, a well-known author in the field. This book discusses the relationship between informal learning on the one hand and formal and non-formal learning on the other. Including the introduction (Chapter 1) and the conclusion (Chapter 6) it has six chapters. Designed to be a guide, each one of the four main chapters ends with suggestions for further reading and control exercises. The core of the analysis, supported by an extensive literature review, moves from the definition of concepts and their limits (Chapter 2) to a discussion of the nature and processes of informal learning (Chapter 3) and then to a literature review on the different dimensions of informal learning (Chapter 4). Chapter 5 is devoted to the multifaceted links between informal, non-formal and formal learning. The introductory chapter begins with a discussion aiming to draw a line between education (teacher-centred) and learning (learner-centred) in the context of lifelong learning. The shift from education towards learning resulted in ‘‘the redefinition of teaching as the facilitation of learning and of education as the provision of learning opportunities or learning experiences’’ (Biesta 2009, cited by Rogers, p. 11). This debate between schools of thought brought forth several definitions of learning to the point that Rogers observes a confusion against which he warns the reader: ‘‘This change from ‘education’ to ‘learning’ in our current Discourses may help to make clearer the fact that there is no consensus to be found as yet as to the meaning of the word’’ (p. 13), making the reader wonder how the author defines learning. In Chapter 2, Rogers presents three generally agreed-on definitions of learning emanating from UNESCO – formal learning, non-formal learning and informal learning – before pointing out the key criteria which distinguish them. These are the

This article reports a case study on a popular informal science learning community via social media in China, named GuoKr (meaning “nutshell” in English). Data were collected through a variety of Chinese social media and social networking sites, web-based community portals, and discussion boards. Content analyses and data mining were conducted to investigate how GuoKr successfully attracted and engaged public in informal learning on scientific topics in particular. The study found three key characteristics that contributed to the success of such learning communities: (a) utilizing a variety of social media to empower participants with just-in-time, accidental learning opportunities; (b) daily tweets related to emerging or ongoing social events or hot topics to provide brief but intriguing knowledge “bites”, which often leads to extended readings and related resources; and (c) the integration of social media and traditional face-to-face local events to engage the public in science-related learning and knowledge sharing. Practical and research implications are discussed with suggestions for future research as related to ubiquitous learning communities for informal science learning.

Learning is a cognitive process that occurs either
 in a formal or informal learning environment, by way of
 adopting either formal or informal learning process. While
 the significance of former has been widely accepted, later is
 still researched and lacks relevant studies on its implications
 for web-based learning, especially by way of instigating
 learning motivation. This paper presents descriptive analysis
 of learning motivation factors within (i) formal and informal
 learning environments, and (ii) formal and informal
 learning processes, and then examines their influence on
 web-based learning by computing Pearson correlations. To
 achieve study objectives, the paper discusses relevant literature
 and then conceptualizes a research model to be tested
 through a survey based questionnaire. Formal learning
 process is discussed with reference to learning activities as
 promoted by formal learning institutes, while informal
 learning process is examined by way of investigating learning
 motivation factors associated with (i) video-games, (ii)
 social networking websites and (iii) motion-pictures. Results
 illustrate interesting revelation of learning motivational
 factors, particularly motivational factors associated with
 informal learning environment and processes have been
 found to have a statistically significant relationship with
 web-based learning. The paper concludes implications of the
 statistical findings for designing of cognitively engaging
 web-based learning environments.

Objective: This study explores students' perceptions of using Personal Learning Environments (PLEs) in the era of generative artificial intelligence as a learning resource in higher education. The specific objectives are: 1) to determine the current tools that students incorporate into their PLEs and 2) to identify students' perceptions of the use of PLEs for lifelong learning. Theoretical Framework: UNESCO and other institutions recognize lifelong learning as an essential competency for personal and professional development. Personal Learning Environments (PLEs) are considered effective tools for promoting self-directed learning, allowing students to manage their learning processes, especially with the advent of generative artificial intelligence technologies. Method: A qualitative study was conducted with 207 first-semester engineering students from a public university in Peru. Participants were introduced to a training program to develop their PLEs using various digital tools, including generative AI tools such as ChatGPT DALL-E. The instrument used to evaluate students' perceptions was the MUSIC model (Jones, 2009), which focuses on empowerment and usefulness. Results: The results indicate that more than 80% of the students positively perceive PLEs, considering them valuable and empowering tools for achieving their learning objectives. Integrating generative AI tools into PLEs is notable, as it provides a dynamic and personalized learning experience. Most students found PLEs helpful for their future and relevant for promoting lifelong learning skills. Research Implications: The research suggests that PLEs, especially when integrated with generative AI tools, positively impact self-directed learning and promote collaborative and social learning. These findings can inform the development of educational programs and policies that encourage using PLEs as a student-centered learning strategy. Originality/Value: This study contributes to the understanding of the role of PLEs in the context of higher education and generative artificial intelligence. It is one of the first studies to examine students' perceptions of using PLEs with generative AI tools, highlighting their potential to enhance learning autonomy and personalization.

Formal and informal online learning spaces have evolved into important sources of knowledge that are accessible to many, require limited mobility, and provide ubiquitous learning opportunities. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has led to a major jump in the increase of online learning to make learning available, accessible, and possible to the diverse learner population globally. Reducing the gender divide in access to knowledge and information has been the goal of many initiatives, and understanding how access has evolved and improved women’s opportunities to learn and be empowered is key to analyze the changing society. Women are empowered when they have access to learning and access is enhanced through the use of formal and informal online learning spaces and programs. With the knowledge gained, women’s capability is boosted with informed choices, active roles in the workforce, advancement in academics, and increased participation in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) education. Online learning can encourage and motivate women to actively participate in social or cultural movements as well as modify their roles as childbearers, caregivers, and home managers. Women empowerment and gender equality has been the focus of research for decades, but with the rise and availability of ubiquitous learning possibilities, women empowerment through the utilization of online learning opportunities is becoming an area that has much need for understanding. In the past, women were more passive about their marginalized position in society. However, women in the 21st century are more aware and active, and are disrupting their marginalized status with their increased use of digital spaces and online learning possibilities. They explore different sources of knowledge and information and join in different online education opportunities for formal and informal learning. Women not only empower themselves with the exploration of online resources but also others when they teach online, actively share information on social media, and participate in online discussion forums.

Professor Ricardo Torres Kompen is a leading proponent for, and researcher in, personal learning environments (PLEs). During his interview, Torres Kompen clarified his research on PLEs, particularly the digital toolbox within PLEs. He elaborated on experiences with implementing PLE initiatives, personal insights on using social media and Web 2.0 technologies, and the role of PLEs in designing learning for an increasingly complex, networked community in the digital age. Located in Barcelona, Spain, Torres Kompen has traveled extensively and worked in diverse settings. His work has a broad impact, including educators and students, formal and informal learning environments, from primary school students to lifelong learners. The innovative leadership traits referred to as the Innovator's DNA (Dyer, Gregersen, & Christensen, 2011) was used to contextualize major developments in Torres Kompen's contributions to research and practice in PLEs.

The purpose of this study was to explore how Navy active duty service members advance professional knowledge through informal learning using Navy-related social media tools. Two research questions were utilized: a. How do Navy service members advance their professional knowledge through informal learning by interacting with peers within Navy-related social media tools?, b. How do Navy service members advance their professional knowledge through informal learning interacting with digital objects within Navy-related social media tools? Data included ten semi-structured, in-depth interviews and field notes. Data analysis was conducted through general inductive analysis and constant comparison. Findings showed that service members advanced professional knowledge by interacting with their peers through reducing organizational hierarchy barriers, learning vicariously through others, recognizing who has credible information, and translating Navy-speak. Interacting with digital objects encouraged service members to advance professional knowledge through following learning pathways enabled by links, adding incremental additive knowledge through visuals, adopting transmitted culture, and not reinventing the wheel for posts and templates. From the findings, three prominent conclusions were drawn: Social media facilitates many types of informal learning characteristic of VHRD that are critical for service member professional development; A hybrid of Navy culture and the specific social media group's values supports cultural relevancy and flexibility to assist informal learning and developing into VHRD; A media-rich environment enables informal learning through Navy-related social media leading to professional development of self and others outside of the platform through learning transfer.--Author's abstract

In Learning to Think Strategically, author Julia Sloan presents a previously unexamined account of the relationship between strategic thinking and the learning process involved — taking learning from the academic to the everyday. This book is an original primer on how successful strategists learn to think strategically. This authoritative book traces the history of strategy, differentiates strategic thinking from planning, describes the influence of culture, streamlines the roles of rationality and intuition, and identifies five key attributes for learning to think strategically. Learning to Think Strategically asserts that learning is the critical link to strategic thinking. Learning is a "conversion tool" that can transform thinking strategically into a sustainable competitive advantage.

Children learn in formal (school) and informal (out-of-school) contexts. Do these children integrate what they learn in these different contexts? While some research shows that they do most of the literature points to a serious lack of contact between these contexts when dealing with related content. During the last two decades, many education researchers have called to bridge this gap. The aim of this paper is to develop a model to guide dialogue and cooperation between staff members within formal and informal educational contexts, in order to foster this integration. We present: (1) a rationale for bridging between formal and informal learning contexts, including the need for a comprehensive and practical model to guide this effort; (2) a design-based research methodology for developing the model; and (3) the resulting 4 × 4-bridging model. We argue that this model can help educators, engaged in formal and informal learning, to develop practical and productive partnerships with each other.

Despite the high popularity of personal use of online social media, a low percentage of students and instructors use them for educational purposes. This qualitative study explores the use of social media among faculty in the discipline of public administration in the United States. Eight instructors participated in telephone interviews about their experiences and perceptions of using social media for teaching and learning. Instructors perceive that informal learning using social media could be facilitated by instructors and integrated into formal learning environments for enriched discussions, increased engagement, and broad connections. This study provides qualitative empirical support for social learning theories while offering strategies for and examples of how social media can be used to connect formal and informal learning.

Purpose: This study has two main purposes, which are to reveal teachers 'views on social media use and their levels of informal learning with smartphones, and to determine the relationship between teachers' social media usage purposes and their levels of informal learning with smartphones.Design/Methodology/Approach: Explanatory mixed design was used in the survey made using a survey model and mixed methods. The study's population consists of 1,198 teachers working in secondary schools in Kars Province, whereas the study's sample group consists of 303 secondary school teachers selected using the multi-stage stratified purposeful sampling method. “Purpose of Using Social Media Scale,” “Informal Learning Activities with Smartphones Scale,” and the “Semi-Structured Interview Form for Opinions of Teachers on Social Media and Informal Learning” were used as data collection tools in the study. One-Way Variance Analysis, Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal Wallis H test as well as t test for frequency, percentage, relative coefficient of variable, and arithmetic mean independent samples were used to analyze the study's quantitative data. The study's qualitative data were resolved using descriptive and content analysis.Findings: The results of the study showed that teachers' use of social media for content-sharing purposes and the level of informal learning with smartphones decreased as their age increased and that their use of social media for communication and content-sharing purposes and the level of informal learning with smartphones decreased as their seniority increased. It was determined that the use of social media for research, to share content, and to initiate communication decreased as the time spent using social media decreased. It was also seen that all the teachers who participated in the study transferred and used the videos, information, and documents they saw on social media in their lessons, that they learned informal information from social media, and that they used their smartphones in informal learning.Highlights: In the light of the results of this study, it can be suggested to create a social media platform that enables all stakeholders of education to take part in every stage of the formation, and that makes it possible to work educationally with more advanced features. According to EBA and to evaluate the work done in a reliable and valid way.

Heritage sites are typical informal learning spaces, which play significant roles in promoting the cultural and historical knowledge to the visitors (Wenger, 1999). Visitor's engagement with heritage sites is a traditional view to explore the informal learning spaces in the cultural sector (Budge & Burness, 2018). Informal learning within heritage sites, however, has been informed and changed by the digitization and virtualization in the cultural sector (King, Stark & Cooke, 2016). But this generates new research interests to establish links between the traditional and the digital cultural studies (eg. Turkle, 2013; Bland, 2014; Fitzgerald, 2015). This paper discussed several cases to show how digital technologies inform visitor's engagement with heritage sites. In this way, this paper also explores the informal learning in the digital era. Keywords: Engagement, informal learning, digital heritage sites, digital technologies in cultural sector.

A Personal Learning Environment or PLE is described as a process that helps students organize the influx of information and resources that they are faced with on a daily basis into a personalized digital learning space or experience. A PLE is primarily facilitated by cloud-based Web 2.0 technologies and services designed to help students create, organize, and share content, participate in collective knowledge generation, and manage their own meaning making. Hence, a PLE is student-designed around each student’s goals or learning approach. In a PLE, the student develops an individualized digital identity through the perceptual cues and cognitive affordances that the personalized learning environment provides such as what information to share and when, who to share it with, and how to effectively merge formal and informal learning experiences. To gather data on PLEs, Mason students were asked what do they like to learn about; what hardware (devices) and software do they use to learn; what digital tools they wish they had access to for learning; and what their ideal PLE might look like. In this presentation, we will share student responses to these questions and provide recommendations for supporting the development PLEs in teaching and learning contexts.