Interaction of Rhizobium Inoculation, Phosphorus Application and Planting Density Affects Green Gram Yield and Economic Benefit

Maize production in Kilifi County, Kenya has been on the decline due to limitations of poor soils, unpredictable rainfall and its cultivation in small parcels of land. Okra is one of the high value crops intercropped with maize in the County. The area under okra cultivation has been on the rise due to increased demand, good export market, nutritional and medicinal value. Intercropping has considerable benefits of maximizing productivity. In Kilifi County, intercropping maize and okra is done in various mixtures, with inconsistence in plant density. Field studies were undertaken in two seasons: short rains (October 2020 - January 2021) and long rains (April - July 2021), at Industrial Crops Research Institute (ICRI) farm, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) - Mtwapa in Kilifi, Kenya. The objective was to evaluate the effect of spatial arrangement on grain and fruit yield of maize and okra respectively in maize/okra intercropping system. There were four treatments consisting of sole maize, sole okra, maize/okra intercrop in alternating rows of 1:2, and maize/okra intercrop in 2:2 spatial arrangement, replicated three times in a randomized complete block design (RCBD). Maize yield data measured included: number of cobs per plant, cob diameter, cob length, cob weight, number of grains per cob, 1000 grain weight, and total grain yield. Okra yield parameters included number of fruits per plant, fruit diameter, fruit weight, fruit length and fruit yield (t/ha). Results showed that the number of okra fruits per plant, fruit weight and fruit length were significantly affected (P ≤ 0.05) by spatial arrangement. However, spatial arrangement did not significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affect the number of cobs per plant, cob length, cob diameter, cob weight, number of grains per cob, 1000 grain weight and total maize grain yield. Moreover, okra fruit diameter, and total okra yield were not significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affected by spatial arrangement. This study recommends that farmers in Kilifi County can combine maize and okra as intercrop in the ratio 1:2 and 2:2. Intercropping maize and okra can enable them get their staple food of maize, and have okra vegetable to meet their dietary requirements, and increase land utilization.

The urgency of securing safe, affordable, reliable, and nutritious food amid a growing global population and shrinking land productivity underscores the pivotal role of corporate leadership in fostering strategic partnerships and organizational performance. This is crucial for organizations like Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) to enhance performance and drive agricultural innovation that ensure achievement of national targets and mandate. Understanding the dynamics between leadership effectiveness, strategic alliances, and organizational performance is essential for addressing food security challenges and optimizing the impact of agricultural research institutions worldwide. The projected 27% increase in global population by 2050 emphasizes the need for strong corporate leadership and strategic partnerships to ensure balanced diets for over half a billion smallholder farmers. Despite Kenya's higher productivity than East Africa and Africa averages, challenges remain in enhancing food security through effective leadership and strategic alliances, particularly within institutions like KALRO. The study explored the moderating influence of strategic linkages on the relationship between corporate leadership and the performance of KALRO. Rooted in organizational excellence, upper echelons, legitimacy, and stakeholder theories, the research employed a pragmatic philosophy, and mixed methods design to mitigate bias. The target population included 75 management organs, with 60 directors and 188 top leadership units as units of observation. Quantitative analysis, using a composite regression model and ANOVA, revealed a significant impact of strategic linkages on corporate leadership and KALRO's performance. The study verified consistent variances and normality across variables, supporting parametric analyses. Autocorrelation analysis indicated no significant autocorrelation. Multicollinearity tests showed acceptable values, ensuring the reliability of the regression model. No outliers were detected. Cronbach's alpha scores demonstrated strong internal reliability. Significant correlations confirmed associations between variables, aligning with previous research findings. Strategic linkages emerged as enhanced moderator, explaining 69.4% of the variance. In this case, the moderator variable amplified or strengthened the relationship between corporate leadership and organizational performance of KALRO. Rejecting the null hypothesis highlighted the positive impact of strategic linkages on performance. Conditional effects analysis revealed strong corporate leadership influence at low strategic linkages but diminishing at higher levels. Recommendations encompassed gender diversity, inclusive leadership development, regular performance appraisals, enhanced monitoring and evaluation system, and improved linkages. The findings provide valuable guidance for KALRO's leadership amid competing priorities and budgetary constraints.

A field experiment was conducted during the 2023 and 2024 main cropping seasons in the dryland areas of Abergelle District to determine the optimum rate of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers for maximizing mung bean yield. The factorial combined treatments of four rates of phosphorus (0, 30, 60, and 90 kg ha −1 ) and three rates of nitrogen (30, 41, and 52 kg ha −1 ) were laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. An improved variety of mung bean known as “Rasa” was used as a treatment material. The results showed that the phenological, growth, yield, and yield‐related parameters of mung bean were significantly affected by the main and interaction effects of nitrogen and phosphorus rates. The highest pods per plant (14.16), grains per pod (15.73), above‐ground dry biomass yield (9250.00 kg ha −1 ), and grain yield (2050.80 kg ha −1 ) were obtained from the interaction of 52 × 90 kg ha −1 nitrogen and phosphorus application. Based on economic analysis, the highest net benefit (153,004.78 birr ha −1 ) and marginal rate of return (6474.79) were observed under the interaction of 52 kg ha −1 nitrogen and 90 kg ha −1 phosphorus rates and 41 kg ha −1 nitrogen and 90 kg ha −1 phosphorus rates, respectively. While the combination of 52 kg ha −1 nitrogen and 90 kg ha −1 phosphorus produced the highest agronomic yields, the application of 41 kg ha −1 nitrogen and 90 kg ha −1 phosphorus provided the best economic return (highest MRR %). The result clearly showed that, with optimum application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, it is possible to produce maximum and economically feasible yield of mung beans. As a result of this, a 41 kg ha −1 nitrogen and 90 kg ha −1 phosphorus fertilizer combination can be recommended as an efficient and economical mung bean production to be used for smallholder farmers in the dryland areas of Abergelle District, Wag Himra Zone, Amhara region, Ethiopia.

The experiment was conducted at the agricultural research farm of the Department of Agronomy and Agricultural Extension, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh from December 2020 to April 2021. The aim was to investigate the impact of plant density per hill and harvesting time on the growth, yield, and economic benefits of onions. Three plant densities were tested: one plant per hill (P1), two plants per hill (P2), and three plants per hill (P3). Additionally, two harvesting times were evaluated: 110 days after transplanting (H1) and 125 days after transplanting (H2). The experiment followed a Randomized Completely Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Both plant density and harvesting time significantly influenced most growth and yield parameters. The highest values for leaf diameter, neck diameter, bulb length, bulb diameter, fresh bulb weight, dry bulb weight, and yields per hectare were observed with two plants per hill (P2). Similarly, the highest values for those parameters were found with the later harvest time of 125 days (H2). The combination of two plants per hill and harvesting at 125 days (P2H2) produced the best results, including the highest leaf and neck diameters, bulb dimensions, fresh and dry bulb weights, and yields per hectare. This combination also achieved the highest Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) of 2.12, compared to 1.71 for the one plant per hill and 110-day harvest combination (P1H1). Therefore, the study concludes that planting two onions per hill and harvesting at 125 days after transplanting yield the best growth, yield, and economic benefits.

Field experiments were conducted during the 2023 and 2024 main cropping seasons at farmers’ fields in Sekota and Aberegele districts to evaluate the effects of nitrogen (N) fertilizer rates and pearl millet–mung bean intercropping systems on the productivity and economic returns of pearl millet. The treatments consisted of a 3 × 4 factorial combination of three N rates (21, 42, and 63 kg N ha −1 ) and four row intercropping ratios (1:1, 1:2, 2:1, and 2:2), arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Sole pearl millet and sole mung bean plots were included as control treatments. Results showed that most yield and yield‐related parameters of pearl millet were significantly influenced by the main effects of N rate and intercropping arrangement. The highest grain yield (1266.95 kg ha −1 ), 1000‐grain weight (6.16 g), head weight (26.46 g), and harvest index (HI) (41%) were obtained at 42 kg N ha −1 , indicating the agronomic maximum. Among intercropping treatments, the 1:2 pearl millet–mung bean row ratio produced the highest grain yield (1070.83 kg ha −1 ), 1000‐grain weight (6.05 g), head weight (24.06 g), and HI (37%). Economic analysis revealed that the highest net benefit (NB) (133,075.91 Birr ha −1 ) and marginal rate of return (MRR) (1562.54%) were achieved from the combination of 42 kg N ha −1 and the 1:2 intercropping ratio, representing the economic optimum. Under the specific agro‐ecological and management conditions of the Sekota and Aberegele districts, the application of 42 kg N ha −1 combined with a 1:2 pearl millet–mung bean intercropping arrangement can be considered an efficient and economically feasible production option. However, the recommendation should be limited to conditions similar to those of the present study.

In protected agriculture, irrigation methods and input structures play a critical role in shaping carbon and nitrogen footprints as well as ecological-economic performance. Using a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach, this study systematically evaluated the carbon footprint (CF), nitrogen footprint (NF), environmental damage cost (EDC), and net ecosystem economic benefit (NEEB) under conventional surface irrigation (CK) and three negative-pressure irrigation (NPI) treatments (N1, N2, N3). Compared with CK, NPI significantly reduced CF and NF by up to 74.09% and 76.45%, respectively, primarily due to reduced N2O emissions and fertilizer inputs. NPI also alleviated soil organic carbon loss by 78.85%, underscoring its strong potential for environmental sustainability. However, the high cost of ceramic emitters (accounting for 88.36%~89.80% of Costagricultural input ) and their substantial upstream emissions resulted in a significantly lower net economic benefit (NEB) for NPI compared with CK. Despite this drawback, NPI treatments demonstrated superior ecological-economic efficiency: EDC was reduced by over 85%, and the N1 treatment achieved a NEEB of -10.37 CNY ha-1, nearly reaching break-even. These results highlight a clear trade-off between environmental benefits and economic feasibility. Policy support (e.g., subsidies, carbon credits) and innovations in emitter materials (e.g., low-carbon or biodegradable alternatives) are essential to improve the overall sustainability and scalability of NPI systems.

Mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) is a leguminous crop with a tremendous potential in achieving food and nutritional security in Ethiopia in future. In addition, mung bean plays a major role in improving soil nitrogen content through atmospheric nitrogen fixation, thus reducing the dependance on synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers. However, its productivity is limited by inadequate plant population and NPS fertilizer rate in the study area. Hence, this study was carried out to determine the optimum plant population and NPS fertilizer rates for mung bean borda variety in Bako. The experiment comprised of factorial combinations of four different plant populations (500000, 571429, 666667, and 800000 plants ha-1) and five NPS fertilizer rates (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg ha-1) and it was laid out using Randomised Complete Block Design with three replications. Results indicated that main effect of plant population and NPS fertilizer rates had significant effect on phenology, growth, yield, and yield components of mung bean, except stand count, above-ground biomass, straw and seed yield, which were affected by the main factors and their interactions. Highest nodule dry weight per plant (0.14g), number of pods per plant (4.74 g), weight of seeds per pod (10.26 g), 100-seed weight (3.61g), and harvest index (31.16%) were observed under minimum plant population (500,000 plants ha-1). Moreover, effective nodules per plant (2.28), nodule fresh weight (0.33 gm), nodule dry weight (0.141g plant-1), number of pods per plant (4.79), seeds per pod (10.78 g), 100-seed weight (3.73 g) and harvest index (32.98%) were observed under 200 kg ha-1 NPS fertilizer rate. Highest stand count per hectare (780,667 plants ha−1), above-ground biomass (4,947kg ha-1), seed yield ha-1 (1,371kg ha-1) and straw yield (3,575 kg ha-1) were recorded at higher plant population (800,000 plants ha-1) with 200kg NPS ha-1 fertilizer rate. However, higher plant population (800,000 plants ha-1) at the rate of 100 kg NPS ha-1 fertilizer produced1, 325 kg ha-1seed yield which was the highest net benefit (50,080 TB) and marginal rate of returns (5,610.8%). Therefore, application of 100 kg NPS ha-1 fertilizer rate with plant population of 800,000 plants ha-1 can be recommended for mung bean production in the study area and similar agro-ecologies. However, the current study was carried out only in one location for one cropping season, hence further studies over many seasons and across several locations are needed to have a conclusive recommendation for wide range of agro-ecologies for mung bean production.

Assessment of greenhouse gases emissions, global warming potential and net ecosystem economic benefits from wheat field with reduced irrigation and nitrogen management in an arid region of China

Scaling up antivenom for snakebite envenoming in the Brazilian Amazon: a cost-effectiveness analysis

A field experiment was conducted at the Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, AKS University, Satna (M.P.), during the Kharif season of 2024-25 to evaluate the effect of integrated nutrient management (INM) on the performance of green gram (Vigna radiata L.) in terms of growth, yield attributes, yield, quality, and economics. The experiment was laid out in a randomised block design (RBD) comprising nine treatments and three replications. The experiment was laid out in a Randomised Block Design (RBD) with nine treatments and three replications. The treatments were: T₁ - Control, T₂ - 100% RDF (20:40:30 kg N:P₂O₅:K₂O ha⁻¹), T₃ - 75% RDF + 5 t FYM ha⁻¹, T₄ - 50% RDF + 5 t FYM ha⁻¹, T₅ - 25% RDF + 5 t FYM ha⁻¹, T₆ - 75% RDF + 5 t vermicompost ha⁻¹, T₇ - 50% RDF + 5 t vermicompost ha⁻¹, T₈ - 25% RDF + 5 t vermicompost ha⁻¹, and T₉ - 5 t FYM ha⁻¹ + 5 t vermicompost ha⁻¹. The results revealed that the treatment T₆ (75% RDF + 5 t vermicompost ha⁻¹) recorded the highest plant height (47.43 cm at harvest), number of branches per plant (7.87 at harvest), root nodules (29.87 per plant at 40 DAS), number of pods per plant (28.40), seeds per pod (10.13), test weight (44.89 g), grain yield (1225 kg ha⁻¹), stover yield (2050 kg ha⁻¹), and protein content (25.9%). It also recorded the maximum net monetary return (₹47,375 ha⁻¹) and benefit: cost ratio (2.61). The lowest values for these parameters were observed in the control treatment (T₁). The study concludes that the integrated use of 75% RDF and 5 t ha⁻¹ vermicompost (T₆) is a superior and sustainable nutrient management strategy for enhancing productivity and profitability in green gram cultivation. The study concluded that the integrated application of 75% RDF with 5 t ha⁻¹ vermicompost is optimal for improving green gram productivity and profitability under the agro-climatic conditions of Satna.

Conservation tillage is regarded as the best practice for crop production in drylands. However, their effect on the green gram (Vigna radiata (L) Wilczek) has not been much documented in ASALs of Kenya. A field study was conducted during the 2018-2019 short rains with the aim of evaluating the effect of tillage methods and mulch application on the growth and yield of two green gram varieties in Katumani and Mwea. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) with a split-slit plot arrangement and three replicates was used. The main plots were tillage methods zero tillage (ZT), furrow-ridge (FR), and conventional tillage (CT). Subplots were mulched plots with plant residue (3 t·ha−1) and plots without mulch applied (0 t·ha−1) and in the sub-subplots were two green gram varieties (N26 and KS20). Data was collected on plant height, number of primary branches, root biomass, shoot biomass, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, 1000 seed weight, grain weight (t·ha1), and harvest index. Data was subjected to the general analysis of variance using GenStat 15th statistical software. Mean separation was calculated using the least significant difference LSD at a 5% probability level. Results showed that tillage methods and mulch application significantly affected growth, yield, and yield component. Furrow-ridge recorded superior effects ahead of zero tillage and conventional tillage. Mulch application had significant effects on growth, yield, and yield component. Variety N26 under the treatment of furrow-ridge mulched with 3 t·ha−1 had a greater number of branches, plant height, yield, and yield components in both experiment sites. The application of mulch had a positive impact on growth, yield, and yield component. Furrow-ridge and zero tillage with mulch emerged to be the most efficient techniques for better green gram yield in Katumani and Mwea. This can be recommended for increased crop production in areas that receive insufficient rainfall.

Planting density influences structural characteristics and affects mineral nutrient acquisition, irradiance and photosynthesis amongst plants. An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of planting density on leaf gas exchange and nodulation of soybean (Glycine max (L) Merrill). The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design (RCBD) in a 5 by 2 factorial treatment arrangement and was replicated three times. Planting density (10, 12, 20, 40, and 80 plants m−2) and soybean varieties (EAI 3600 and DPSB 19) were first and second factors, respectively. Collected data were subjected to analysis of variance in GENSTAT. Significantly different treatment means were separated using Tukey’s honestly significant difference test at 0.05 significance level. Higher planting density significantly increased (p<0.001) interception of photosynthetically active radiation. Increasing number of plants per unit area significantly (p<0.001) reduced root nodulation, stomata conductance, sub-stomatal CO2 concentration, photosynthetic and transpiration rates. Total chlorophyll content was not responsive to planting density though concentration of chlorophyll “a” content was significantly (p<0.005) higher at lower plant density than at higher plant density. Soil moisture status increased with reduction in plant density. Indeterminate variety DPSB 19 had higher rates of stomata conductance, photosynthesis and sub-stomatal CO2 concentration compared to determinate variety EAI 3600.

Proper fertilization in calcareous soil is necessary to enhance higher crop productivity. This was evaluated through a study that aimed to determine the outcome of the blended application of carabao dung and synthetic phosphorus on the response of mungbean in calcareous soil. To evaluate the correct amount of the blended application of aforesaid materials for effective growth and high seed yield of mungbean grown in calcareous soil. The experiment adopted six treatments such as T0 = No fertilizer application (control), T1 = 30-30-30 kg ha-1 N, P2O5, K2O, T2 = 2.5 t ha-1 carabao manure, T3 = 2.5 t ha-1 carabao manure + 10 kg ha-1 P2O5, T4 = 2.5 t ha-1 carabao manure + 20 kg ha-1 P2O5, and T5 = 2.5 t ha-1 carabao manure + 30 kg ha-1 P2O5. This was laid out in a Complete Randomized Design (CRD) with three replications. Soil analysis revealed that phosphorus application with carabao dung promoted the accumulation of soil organic phosphorus. Statistical analysis showed significant effects (p ≥ 0.01 & p ≥ 0.05) was achieved in all parameters gathered except on the period from sowing to heading and maturity, the production of seeds pod-1, root: shoot ratio, and harvest index. The blended application of carabao dung (2.5 t ha-1) and inert phosphorus regardless of dosage produced a remarkably higher number of pods plant-1 (6.13 – 11.53 pods±0.0000) and higher seed yield (0.70 to 1.40 g plant-1±0.0001) than unfertilized control. The combined application of carabao dung (2.5 t ha-1) and synthetic phosphorus (30 kg ha-1) is an appropriate fertilization strategy for mungbean production in calcareous soil to affect higher productivity.

Proper fertilization in calcareous soil is necessary to enhance higher crop productivity. This was evaluated through a study that aimed to determine the outcome of the blended application of carabao dung and synthetic phosphorus on the response of mungbean in calcareous soil. To evaluate the correct amount of the blended application of aforesaid materials for effective growth and high seed yield of mungbean grown in calcareous soil. The experiment adopted six treatments such as T0 = No fertilizer application (control), T1 = 30-30-30 kg ha-1 N, P2O5, K2O, T2 = 2.5 t ha-1 carabao manure, T3 = 2.5 t ha-1 carabao manure + 10 kg ha-1 P2O5, T4 = 2.5 t ha-1 carabao manure + 20 kg ha-1 P2O5, and T5 = 2.5 t ha-1 carabao manure + 30 kg ha-1 P2O5. This was laid out in a Complete Randomized Design (CRD) with three replications. Soil analysis revealed that phosphorus application with carabao dung promoted the accumulation of soil organic phosphorus. Statistical analysis showed significant effects (p ≥ 0.01 & p ≥ 0.05) was achieved in all parameters gathered except on the period from sowing to heading and maturity, the production of seeds pod-1, root: shoot ratio, and harvest index. The blended application of carabao dung (2.5 t ha-1) and inert phosphorus regardless of dosage produced a remarkably higher number of pods plant-1 (6.13 – 11.53 pods±0.0000) and higher seed yield (0.70 to 1.40 g plant-1±0.0001) than unfertilized control. The combined application of carabao dung (2.5 t ha-1) and synthetic phosphorus (30 kg ha-1) is an appropriate fertilization strategy for mungbean production in calcareous soil to affect higher productivity.

Towards end-of-life of photovoltaic systems in Malaysia: An assessment of management strategies using a life cycle approach